Sexuality in Men and Women

Sexuality in Men and Women Sexuality Men Women Blueprint at least two unique ways to deal with the investigation of sexuality. Sexuality is mostly considered just like a characteristic drive or intuition, which turns out to be definitely part of the organic make-up of a person, which just looks for satisfaction through sexual movement. Such a perspective on sexuality, which considers such to be a characteristic substance, is most usually alluded to as essentialism. Most of essentialist hypotheses present today have introduced sex as a characteristic sense required with the end goal of conceptive movement. In such a manner, Weeks (1986) traces that in such an essentialist approach there is an obvious connection among sexuality and organic sex/sex. â€Å"Modern culture has expected a private association between the reality of being naturally male or female (that is having suitable sex organs and regenerative possibilities) and the right type of sensual conduct (typically genital intercourse among men and women)† (Weeks 1986 p.13) With respect to an essentialist perspective, one is left to recognize people, specifically reference to their free sexual wants and needs. It has been noticed that ladies will in general have a characteristic inclination to indiscrimination while men, then again are portrayed as having an a lot more grounded sex drive. Accordingly, concerning this specific talk, human sexuality is vigorously established in organic terms, whereby a hetero drive planned with the end goal of multiplication would be considered â€Å"normal.† Thus, under such a methodology, lesbian, gay and promiscuous people have been to a great extent thought about freak and unnatural, while any people who sort themselves as any of these are hence not considered â€Å"real† men or ladies. â€Å"We take in at an early stage from numerous sources that â€Å"natural† sex is the thing that happens with individuals from the â€Å"opposite† sex. â€Å"Sex† between individuals of the equivalent â€Å"sex† is in this manner, by definition, â€Å"unnatural.† (Weeks 1986 p.13) For the two people, heterosexuality is obviously the standard under such a methodology, while sex is unmistakably communicated in monogamous and conjugal connections in a perfect world. Jeffrey Weeks, who happens to be one of the key pundits of essentialism has been known to dismiss any methodology that neglects to consider the recorded and social powers that shape sexuality. Weeks proposes that the decent variety of sexual character and want is likewise critical to recognize. He dismisses the thought that there is a genuine quintessence of sex, there is no â€Å"uniformed pattern† which is â€Å"ordained commonly itself† (Weeks 1986 p.15). The essentialist contention comes as shortsighted to Weeks, as it lessens the idea of sexual relations and personalities to natural variables. Numerous different scholars have recognized the oversimplified idea of essentialism, by concurring that sexual wants may have all the earmarks of being common, yet additionally recognizing the possibility that our sexual reactions and personalities may in actuality be socially developed. At the point when we get familiar with the examples of our conduct, we are exposed to the implications joined to such practices too. Such practices at that point become a result of certain social and authentic powers; which can quickly be stretched out to incorporate our sexual mentalities, emotions and the manners by which we feel about sexuality itself and consequently our sexual character. It has been said that sexuality is a lot of molded by the way of life wherein we live. The very factors that make up our general public (laws, strict lessons, social arrangements, the media) all connect their own significance to such implications that are passed on to us. This methodology doesn't regard science as unimportant; unavoidably the body forces a few restricts because of sheer differentiation between being male or female for example we experience various things concerning what genitalia we have. However having said this, anatomical structure and physiology don't straightforwardly impact what we do and the manner in which we act, not does it decide the importance we join to the activities we decide to make. â€Å"All the constituent components of sexuality have their source either in the body or the brain, and I am not endeavoring to deny the cutoff points presented by science or mental procedures. Yet, the limits of the body are given importance just by social relations†. (Weeks 1986 p.15). Corresponding to social development, the body is said to increase certain importance in certain social settings as various pieces of the body can be characterized from multiple points of view. For instance, during the 1960s it was expressed that another social setting developed. It was as of right now that the â€Å"G-spot† was found. Such a revelation prompted the immense distribution of books, with the additional acquaintance of classes with assistance ladies investigate their bodies and discover their purported â€Å"G-spot.† In such a manner, the physical life systems of ladies remained equivalent to previously yet now it had an alternate social criticalness. This specific piece of the body was given a specific and new social significance, which was developed to turn into an object of want. Foucault (1981) has been a compelling early scholar by revealing insight into the social development of sexuality. He contends that there is nobody truth about sex. Subsequently different talks, regardless of whether this be it law, religion, medication or psychiatry have set up their specific perspective on the body and its relative joys. Sexual want is made through a lot of substantial sensations, delights and emotions. It is such wants which shape our sexual qualities and from this time forward the importance we join to our bodies. Sex is along these lines not some organic substance represented by common laws (as recommended by essentialism) yet is increasingly similar to a thought explicit to specific societies and specific verifiable periods. The production of definitions and specifically the categorisation with the end goal that of hetero, gay and lesbian and so on turns into the elements of sex. It is through this that we attempt to understand it. Nonetheless, crafted by Foucault, albeit perceived as significant has been reprimanded for not giving enough consideration to the manner in which sex impacts sexual want and personality. In digression with crafted by Foucault, Weeks features that sexual personality is truly formed. Weeks was anxious with the manner by which sexuality and particularly homosexuality has been installed in an ever-changing and exceptionally complex history in the course of recent years. With various impacts, refered to as being women's activists, gay and lesbian activists and Foucault himself, Weeks built up the speculation that numerous sexual classifications that we at last underestimate are really the result of social and authentic marks. The differentiation between the â€Å"natural† and secure are largely dependent upon nonstop naming. Weeks felt it critical to consider the historical backdrop of sexuality, so as to increase a comprehension of the numerous types of personalities existent in the public arena today, as far as socioeconomics, for example, class, ethnicity, sex and sexual inclination. Once more, he accentuates the point that it is reductionist to lessen the complexities of reality to essentialist organic truth. Sexual character, in this manner, as indicated by Weeks isn't accomplished essentially by a demonstration of individual will but instead through social development. Notwithstanding the abovementioned, â€Å"the organic support for heterosexuality as ordinary, it may be proposed, has self-destructed. What used to be called corruptions are just manners by which sexuality can honestly be communicated and self-character be defined.† (Giddens 1992 p.179). Giddens recommends that it is late innovation that has changed sexuality from being a solitary authority and supplanted it with sexual pluralism. This critical move welcomed on by the way that sexuality as a term was generally supplanted by â€Å"sexual identity,† which in any case is characterized by singular decision, whereby sexual decision falls under one of the components of an individual’s â€Å"lifestyle† decision. From a recorded perspective, such a move occurred in a brief timeframe. Sex and perspectives about it, gave a study of sex in a manner of speaking. These were joined by clear qualifications between the ordinary and irregular. Such perspectives have delivered a progression of records of the manner in which individuals carry on explicitly. Such records diverse to crafted by the early sexologists, for example, Freud. Giddens presents the idea of institutional reflexivity to clarify the move. Through the procedure of reflexivity, it is the differentiations between the â€Å"normal us† and the â€Å"perverse them† that disappear. Sexual decent variety, albeit still viewed by numerous antagonistic gatherings as corruption, has moved out of Freuds case-history journals into the ordinary social world (Giddens 1992 p.33). It has been discovered that there has been proof to help the case that the thought of depravity has been supplanted by decent variety, that our appearances of sexual want rank close by different articulations of self-character, that sexual pluralism has supplanted sexual monism. Some alert is essential with this in any case, as Weeks calls attention to (1986 p.81) â€Å"the conceded reality of decent variety need not prompt a standard of diversity.† Such contentions and reactions setting up the perplexing nature to the investigation of sexuality. Among the essentialist/social constructionist banter, there has been a lot of commitment from radical women's activists. Radical women's activists, (the expected outrageous finished type of woman's rights), has gone under analysis for utilizing an essentialist perspective, whereby radical women's activists themselves would profess to be following a social constructionist perspective. The essentialism that extreme women's activists are thought to applied to radical women's activist idea isn't the conventional organic sense, yet an increasingly social sense. Radical women's activists see the subordinate

The tremendous growth experienced

In Nigerian tertiary Institutions Over the most recent multi decade without a comparing increment In bed space had brought about intense deficiency of rooms in the lodging accordingly overstretching the limit of the current structures they were initially implied for. Inn settlement Is one of the basic factors in each learning condition. In Nigeria most Institution of higher learning are claimed by the legislature as such convenience can't be sufficiently given to take into account the profoundly populated Institutions, Inadequacy andInsufficient lodging settlement has prompted stuffing In rooms and a few understudies living outside grounds which In turn influence their learning. Constructed work Transfer (BOOT) developed as one of the instrument In assisting with tending to the circumstance which turns into a weight to government. BOOT is a sort of task conveyance that includes various gatherings whom each contribute so as to see the accomplishment of the undertaking. It is a private consent to construct and work in an open framework project.The consortia at that point secure their own fund to support the task. The consortium at that point own, keeps up and deal with the office for a concurred concessionary period and recoup their venture through charges or cost free. After the concessionary period, the consortia move the possession and activity of the venture to the legislature or important power. This investigation takes Federal College of training (Technical) Biochip as a case study.Government Ministries, for example, Federal Ministry of Education who oversee the undertakings of the school were counseled. Poll and verbal meeting were utilized in information assortment. After the investigation it was discovered that development of inns under BOOT is yielding a positive effect. The discoveries should fill in as a decent gauge for the administration in taking care of the convenience issue and congestion in the higher organization of learning in Nigeria.Therefor e there is requirement for the legislature to give more help to Public Private Partnership segment with the goal that settlement issue will be illuminated. By Amnion The huge development experienced in Nigerian tertiary organizations in the last two aced without a relating increment in bed space had brought about intense structures they were initially implied for.Hostel convenience is one of the fundamental factors in each learning condition. In Nigeria most establishment of higher enough gave to oblige the exceptionally populated organizations, deficiency and deficient inn settlement has prompted stuffing in rooms and a few understudies living outside grounds which thus influence their learning. Assembled work Transfer (BOOT) developed as one of the apparatus in assisting with tending to the circumstance which

Personality Tests Are Flawed Heres What You Really Need to Know

Personality Tests Are Flawed Heres What You Really Need to Know Personality tests have been out there for a long time now, and they’re mainly used to determine a person’s traits and maybe even predict their behavior in certain situations.There are hundreds, if not thousands of these kinds of tests circulating around the Internet and they have a wide range and variety of questions, and they all claim they can tell you more about yourself.Some tests can determine what kind of sandwich you are, or what flavor of Starbucks coffee suits your personality the best and these tests are fun, but clearly, theyre just for laughs and arent to be taken seriously.Other, more serious tests are believed to actually be able to determine your personality and are very popular.But are these tests as accurate as people believe them to be and can you really measure someone’s personality by taking a quiz?WHY IS PERSONALITY SO IMPORTANT?We as humans tend to label things and people in order to put them into specific categories, and this is natural for us as we dont like when we dont understand something because it brings confusion and sometimes fears into our minds.And we label other people for a bunch of different reasons, some of them being:We usually like to be friends with people who we have something in common and share similar interests.We don’t like the people we can’t figure out what they’re like because it’s a strain to always be at the tip of your toes around someone when you don’t know how they’ll react in certain situations.Whether we like it or not, but we’re constantly mirroring people who are either more successful than us or have achieved great things, and we think that if we have similar traits as them, that we’ll become successful too.The ambiguity is what invokes fear in our mind, and when we can’t understand someone or something, we try to stay away from all of that.All of these reasons why we put labels on people are quite natural, and it’s easy to categorize others.But when it comes to our own personal ity and traits, we aren’t so eager to jump into conclusions that fast.This is why personality tests may be useful, but as youll see, they may be not what youre looking for if you really want to know a thing or two about yourself.A BRIEF HISTORY OF PERSONALITY STUDIESSince the beginning of early human era, great philosophers such as Hippocrates, Plato and Aristotle displayed through their work what could be considered some of the first classifications of humans by types and categories.For example, if we take a look at Plato, in his book “Republic”, in there, we can find a story of the Phoenician lie which suggests that some people are made out of gold and silver while others are made from brass making some people more “worthy” than others.Hippocrates, on the other hand, developed the Four Temperaments in his medical theory and categorized people into four types:Sanguine â€" Talkative, enthusiastic, active and social, associated with risk-taking behavior.Choleric â€" Extrove rted, independent, decisive, and goal-oriented, associated with dominant and short-tempered behavior.Melancholic â€" Detail-oriented, deep thinking, emotional and self-reliant, associated with striving for perfection.Phlegmatic â€" Relaxed, peaceful, quiet and easy going, associated with problem-solving and making compromises.There are also many different traces throughout the history of personality studies in Chinese and Hindu medicine, which was based on explaining different traits of human behavior and did actually influence some psychologists later in modern times.And of course, we have the zodiac which was debunked by a 1958 medical study in London called The Time Twins and, according to Washington Times, was an experiment involving 2000 babies born on the same date and roughly the same time which was monitored for decades.The research looked at things such as anxiety, IQ, sociability, and so on. What happened was that everyone ended up growing into their unique personality, me aning zodiac signs aren’t a great indicator of your personality.There was a boom in the psychology of personality at the beginning of the 20th century, and there were many theoreticians which paved the way for the modern understanding of the human personality. Some of the most famous are:Sigmund Freud (1856 â€" 1939) â€" The pioneer of psychoanalysis thought that our personality could be discovered through the examination of our sub-consciousness.Carl Jung (1875 â€" 1961) â€" He presented the introverted and extraverted type in analytical psychology.Abraham Maslow (1908 â€" 1970) â€" Developed the “Maslow’s hierarchy of needs” in 1943.Alfred Adler (1870 -1937) â€" The term “style of life” was first used in Adler’s works which described the dynamics of personality.THE ORIGINS OF PERSONALITY TESTSNo one knows for certain when personality tests became so widespread and popular but one thing is for certain and it is the fact that nowadays there are hundreds of different pe rsonality tests all over the Internet, in magazines and so on.The first personality tests were carried out by psychologists with their patients, but those tests were done behind closed doors and more often than not were used to determine if you had a mental illness or not.It’s also known that personality tests were used in the army prior to WW1 in order to assess soldiers into the military which is still practiced today not only for the army but also various special forces and police departments.But the first questionnaire typed personality tests were actually printed in women’s magazines somewhere around the 1950s, and they had to do with marriage and being a good wife because at that time women werent allowed in the workforce, so they had to have something to do outside the home which made them feel alive.There may be a surprise that the most popular test was actually developed by two women, which well talk about right away.MYERS-BRIGGS TEST AND IT’S FLAWSCertainly, the most popular and widespread personality test is the Myers-Briggs Traits Indicator or MBTI for short, which is believed to be able to accurately measure your personality by putting you into different categories.It was developed by Katherine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers in the 1940s and was based on Carl Jung’s typology theories.The difference was that Jung’s theories weren’t conducted in controlled scientific studies but rather in clinical observation and introspection.The test became so popular that for many years it was considered to be so accurate that it could even tell what kind of a career a person might be most suitable for and so on.How the MBTI test works is it assess the person taking the test by answering questions based on   4 different traits and their counterparts which gives a total of 8 traits and, when combined make up 16 different types of personality.There’s also one extra trait â€" Identity, which underpins all the traits and shows how conf ident you are at making decisions.These traits measure if you:Are introverted, meaning you’re more focused on yourself, or extroverted, meaning you’re more focused on the outside world.Are more likely to trust your senses or your intuition or gut feeling.Approach the world by thinking, meaning logical reasoning, or by feeling, meaning you’re more subjective.Are judging, meaning you come to conclusions about things, or perceiving, meaning that you’re open to new information.Are assertive, meaning you know what you want, or turbulent, meaning you “go with the flow”. These types are shown by the IdentityWhen you finish the test and combine your traits, you’ll get a 4 letter type and one extra letter linked to the Identity trait.For the purpose of this article, I did the test myself on 16personalities.com and got the letters INTJ-A, meaning I’m an introvert, intuitive, thinking, judging, and assertive.If you’re interested in taking this test, feel free to do so, but ta ke it with a grain of salt and we’ll explain why.As it turns out, this test isn’t really that great at measuring your personality for many reasons and most of them being that the methodology with which the test determines your traits isn’t the same methodology which is used today.To further explain this point, we’ll have to take a look at how modern psychologists. Psychologists want their measurements to be reliable, and there are two types of reliability:Retest reliability â€" meaning that if you give people the same test over time, you’ll get similar results.Internal consistency reliability â€" meaning psychologists are measuring one trait at a time.Psychologists also measure validity, meaning that the results should have something to do with real life and actually predict a person’s behavior.Guess which test doesn’t properly assess these two principles.That’s right.Myer-Gibbs doesn’t follow any real scientific research but rather labels people into certain group s which doesn’t really help you understand much about yourself or others.According to Business Insider, a research done by Roman Krznaric, if you take the Myer-Briggs test in a five-week gap, there is a 50% chance youll end up with different results opposed to your initial results.However, to be completely honest, a good characteristic of the Myer-Briggs test is that it uses a numeric score, meaning that, for example, it shows that youre 56% introverted and not completely an introvert, so we have to give it some credits after all.So, as it turns out, the most popular personality test has major flaws, but where does that leave other similar personality tests, or do you even need personality tests to understand things about yourself and others. THE BIG FIVEThe second most popular personality test out there is “The Big Five” or the five-factor model, FFM for short, and was developed by a group of psychologists back in the 1980s.This test was based on Hippocrates’s four temperam ents we talked about earlier and was made for the purpose of assessing five major personality traits:Openness to experience â€"This is made to measure whether you’re inventive (curious) or consistent (cautious).Conscientiousness â€" This shows if you’re efficient (organized) or easy-going (careless).Extraversion â€" It serves to show if you’re more outgoing (energetic) or solitary (reserved).Agreeableness â€" Shows if you’re friendly (compassionate) or challenging (detached).Neuroticism â€" Shows if you’re more sensitive (nervous) or secure (confident).You can memorize these traits in an acronym â€" OCEAN or CANOE. Whichever floats your boat (get it? boat, canoe, no? okay).All jokes aside, this test really does show better results of your personality than the Myer-Briggs one, and it’s not only because it uses numeric measurements, but also because it can predict your behavior better than MBTI.The test itself consists of hundreds of different questions which you answer in the range from “Inaccurate”, “Neutral” and “Accurate.Once youre done, youll get to see your results in the percentage of each category, and youll be able to read what each trait means.As with the MBTI test, I’ve also taken this one on Truity.com, and I’m happy to share my results with you. I’ve got 90% on Openness, 73% on Conscientiousness, 56% on Extraversion, 33% on Agreeableness and 67% on Neuroticism.Quite frankly, I’m not that disappointed with the results, but I must say that the questions I had to answer didn’t feel as they could dwell deep into my personality and actually predict my behavior.I did the test again, and it showed not the same but similar results so we could say that it is somewhat useful to get some insight, but you can’t by any means get a real picture of who you actually are.All in all, if you’re curious enough to try this test feel free to do so, but as with the Myer-Briggs one, it won’t really predict your future let alone tell yo u if you have the traits needed to be the next millionaire. THE REASON THESE TESTS FAILFirst, f you think of it this way, all these tests are giving you are some hints of the traits you might have, but your traits can’t be measured by answering some random set of questions in order to get some numeric results.To really get a scientific insight on your whole personality, you would need to be monitored by a psychologist since the day you were born, and that’s not only unpractical but also impossible.Because even if that was to happen, the constant monitoring of a psychologist will surely have an influence on your personality in one way or another, mainly because our mind is susceptible to social interference.Another reason these tests fail is that you can never be completely objective about yourself, and you’ll always answer the questions on the test in accordance with how you now think about yourself.Third and this is the most compelling reason if you ask me, is that people cha nge and the person you are now and your traits might alter significantly in the future.Same goes for the person you were in the past because you dont have the same interests and traits as you do now.I think it is clear now why personality tests aren’t as accurate as they pretend to be, but one question remains, and that is â€"are they even useful? DO WE EVEN NEED PERSONALITY TESTS?We could go on and on about many different personality tests out there, and weve explained the two most common ones used by millions of people, and there is so many more test which really dwells deep into your personality, but the truth is rather disappointing.You see, personality tests are created by psychologists who do research and studies on the human mind and our behavior, but there’s yet to be a psychology theory which can accurately measure someone’s traits and predict whether they’ll stay the way they are or completely change their personality altogether.There have been countless factors in cluded, such as social influence, financial status, religion, culture, marital status, whether you’re a single child or have siblings, the list goes on and on, yet to no avail.And this has nothing to do with psychologists.Theyre doing their best to conduct experiments and observe the human mind based on a scientific study and I salute them for that, but in the end, humans are so unpredictable that it will take time to really get an accurate answer to the question â€" What is the self.If you think of it this way, who could better determine who you are than you, yourself? And once this question is asked, another one pops-up right away â€" do we even need personality tests?Well, Id hate to break it to you, but it shows that theyre just a waste of time.Instead of spending your time on these tests, you could actually be doing the things you want and like to do, the things that really define who you are.Because the answers you’re looking for are the same answers many philosophers, poe ts, musicians, artists, sociologists and of course psychologists are looking for as well.The question still remains â€" Who are we?CAN I FIND OUT ABOUT MY PERSONALITY BY MYSELF?Back in my first semester of the first year in college, I had the Introduction to psychology as a subject and although much of the things we’ve learned on that course I forgot, mainly because I’m not interested in psychology that much, is that there is a thing called introspection.Ive heard about introspection a while back, but never really researched it until I studied for my exam, which was, ironically enough, mainly oriented on the theories of personality.Right there and then I discovered something which we all do for the time to time, and that is self-reflection.Have you ever sat down on your bed or looked through the window and started to think really deeply about how your life’s been going?If you’ve answered yes, it’s a relief for me to know I’m not the only “crazy person” who does that, and also it shows that people conduct introspection on themselves at one point or another in their lives.The origins of introspection theory can be traced back to Wilhelm Wundt, and he gave specific instructions on how to properly self-reflect such as:You must be aware and prepare yourself for the process of introspection.You must hold attention and concentration once you start self-reflecting.You should be capable of repeating the self-reflection under the same conditions.You must understand the circumstances of your state while you’re self-reflecting and grade them by strength and quality.As you can see, these instructions feel a little rough and hard to follow, and this is mainly because Wundt wanted to make a synthesis of the conscious experiences a person who is self-reflecting could feel.Opposed to Wundt’s theory, Edward Titchener, who was his student, expanded the main idea of introspection and actually brought lot’s of Wundt’s ideas to America.What Titchener had in mind was that instead of self-reflecting on our whole life basically, we should focus on the individual components that make up our conscious experiences.What all this means is that self-reflection is a real thing and we can use it to find out more about ourselves, so instead of answering the questions on a personality test, we should try and ask ourselves the questions we want to answer.There is no personality test which will give you an answer of who you are, they can just tell you a little bit about your traits but not how you’ll act in certain situations because that all depends from case to case.FINAL WORDWe had to give you the ugly truth about personality tests, but we hope that you’ve learned a thing or two about personality and why it’s hard to answer difficult questions about such a broad part of human life.Also, we dont want to discourage you from taking the tests anyway because they can be fun, but you should take them with a grain of salt and not waste so much time in figuring out their meaning.Maybe in the future, there will be personality tests which can answer all the questions youve had about yourself and life in general, but for now, it seems that the best personality test is already in your head, and as life passes youll be able to answer most of the questions.

Essay The Role of the Gods and Fate in Virgils The Aeneid

The Role of the Gods and Fate in Virgils The Aeneid Are the deeds of mortal characters in the Aeneid controlled by the gods or by fate? Aeneas must fulfill the will of the gods, while enduring the wrath of other gods, all the while being a worthy predecessor of Augustus and founder of the Roman people. Of course, the Trojan is successful because he gives himself up to these other obligations, while those who resist the will of the gods, Dido and Turnus, die sad deaths. Juno, the queen of gods, attempts to destroy Aeneas and his men in Book I of the Aeneid. The city of Carthage is Junos favorite, and it has been prophesized that the race of the Trojans will one day destroy that city. This is too much for Juno to bear as another†¦show more content†¦Thanks to Neptune, though, they are only thrown off course, and Venus assures that they will not be harmed in Carthage. At times in the Aeneid, it seems as if the story is less about the deeds of the mortal characters than about the bickering of the gods, who continuously disrupt or manipulate events on Earth. The one common theme, though, is that fate always comes true. Aeneas is destined to settle in Italy, and nothing can prevent this. Jupiter sees to it that his overall plan will come to pass by helping out Venus. The fall of Troy was brought about because the god Minerva helped to fool the Trojans into accepting the wooden horse. Sinon tells the Greeks, if your hands should harm Minervas gift, / then vast destruction...would fall on Priam?s kingdom and the Phrygians; / but if it climbed by your hands into Troy, then Asia would repel the Greeks (II.268-273). Minerva sends a strange sign to confirm this story: two giant serpents rise up from the sea, devour a priest and his two sons, and then slither up to the shrine of Minerva. The Trojans took this as a sign that they must appease the goddess, and so they wheeled the horse into the city of Troy. Throughout the book Aeneas is convinced that the gods are out to get him: Had the outcome not / been fated by the gods...Troy, you would be standing yet (II.75-79); But oh, it isShow MoreRelated Promoting Morality in the Aeneid and Metamorphoses Essay1621 Words   |  7 PagesPromoting Morality in the Aeneid and Metamorphoses    Just as the authors of the Bible use an evocative, almost mythological vehicle to convey covenants and laws that set the moral tone for Hebrew and Christian societies, Latin poets Virgil and Ovid employ a similarly supernatural method to foster their own societal and moral goals in Roman society. 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Each hero faces many obstacles to reach their fate. With both heroes having the ultimate goal of reaching their homeland or in Aeneas’ case finding a new home. There are many similarities such as both Odysseus and Aeneas sailing the same sea, and visiting some of the same location such as; the underworldRead More Destiny in the Aeneid Essay549 Words   |  3 Pagesin The Aeneid   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fate, in the Ancient Greek and Roman world, was one of the great unchangeable powers that stand above even the gods in the hierarchy of supernatural forces. The Greeks and Romans thought that the Fates were three ancient women who spun the web of destiny together. Each man’s life is a thread, and the fates would draw it out and cut it as they saw fit. The gods themselves had to obey the Fates, for even they had golden threads. Fate plays a very large role in Virgil’s epic TheRead MoreDiscuss the Role of the Supernatural in the Aeneid3022 Words   |  13 PagesDiscuss the role of the supernatural in Aeneid 3 In ancient poetry, gods were people too; early epic was history but a history adorned by myth. This fantastical, mythical element came via the gods, envisaged as anthropomorphic deities. In Virgil’s Aeneid these gods function in epic as literary vehicles and as characters no less detailed and individual than the people in the poem. In this world where the mortal and the supernatural not only coexist but interweave with one another, the Aeneid followsRead MoreFate : Fate And Fate In Virgils Aeneid1637 Words   |  7 PagesVirgil’s Aeneid, tells the story of Aeneas, the hero and object of fate who is also well known for fitting every description of a classic epic hero. He is of noble and supernatural birth, he faces and successfully overcomes temptations, and he acts as the vessel the gods wish him to be. Although Aeneas frequently makes his own life decisions, it can still be argued that no single aspect of his life was untouched by fate, predictions, or prophecy. Fate directs the main course of action as theRead MoreFree Will : Ancient Literature1536 Words   |  7 Pagescivilization it is today. â€Å"Determinism is another philosophical concept, which states that human life is pre-determined by such forces as gods, fate or destiny† (Cross Reference Project, 2015). The concept of free will versus fate is a prominent theme in much of literature especially those of the ancient West. Stories such as Homer’s Iliad and the Odyssey as well as Virgil’s Aeneid helped pave the way for literature to inspire society to evolve and provide us with depictions of characters who had the abilityRead MoreCompare and Contrast the Portrayal of the Gods in Virgils Aeneid and Metamorphoses2692 Words   |  11 PagesCONTRAST THE PORTRAYAL OF THE GODS IN VIRGILS AENEID AND OVIDS METAMORPHOSES. There is a significant difference in the treatment of the gods in the Aeneid and the Metamorphoses, even though both authors were writing in the epic tradition. Virgil wrote his Aeneid in the last ten years of his life, between 29BC and 19BC, after the Battle of Actium, in 31BC, which was significant, as it established Octavian as the sole emperor, Augustus, of Rome. The Aeneid is a celebration of AugustusRead MoreRelationship Between Achilles And Iliad1079 Words   |  5 Pageswas the most important for a man to achieve. Achilles of Homer’s epic poem Iliad and Aeneas of Virgil’s Aeneid are depicted to be great heroes, although they can only achieve their goals with the assistance of divine intervention. Looking at the relationship between â€Å"heroes† and the gods, Achilles and Aeneas could not have succeeded without help from the gods, leading them toward the inevitable fate the gods wanted for them. Homer describes Achilles to be the fiercest trooper in battle due to hisRead MoreCritical Analysis Of The Aeneid1846 Words   |  8 PagesCritical Analysis of Virgils Aeneid In The Aeneid, Virgil uses many prophecies. They begin in the first few lines and last throughout the poem. Many are directed toward Aeneas, but some are to his relatives and friends. The prophecies shown allow the reader to better understand the situation and also provide insight about Rome. Prophecies are an important key to The Aeneid. Prophecies are very important to Virgil’s The Aeneid. Early on, Virgil does not hide what will happen, but instead, he allows

The Ethical Dilemma Of Pornography - 1162 Words

Benchmark Assignment: Ethical Dilemmas Humanity has struggled with determining the best option to solve their ethical dilemmas that they run into in their life. Analyzing and determining the best option to take can leave an individual lost in faith and building a relationship with God. Building a God foundation in your life will help you in every ethical dilemma that you face. The only way to solve an ethical dilemma with viewing pornography is to view the dilemma according to a Christian worldview and compare different options to solve the ethical dilemma. Ethical Dilemma Pornography is an ethical decision that many people face every day. In this ethical dilemma, TJ enjoys masturbating to internet pornography inside his house†¦show more content†¦You are also made in Gods image and should take care of your health, if your ethical dilemma is affecting your health then it is not aligning with your relationship with God. A second Christian worldview belief is the other morel law that Jesus stated was one of th e greatest, You shall love your neighbor as yourself (Lecture 6, 2017). The love TJ has for internet pornography has blurred his view that he should treat pornography actors the same way he would want to be treated. And when TJ is contributing to the success of the company producing pornography he is potentially contributing to the negative health of the individuals in the films. A third Christian worldview belief is that you, Do not commit adultery (Exodus 20:14). As stated in Proverbs 29:3, The man who loves wisdom brings joy to his father, but whoever associates with prostitutes wastes his wealth. Therefore, when TJ is watching pornography, he is not building a relationship with God and is instead wasting the potential of wisdom. Resolution The first step that TJ should do is to understand that God rescued people from the grips of Hell by sending Jesus Christ His Son to die for our sins. Then TJ needs to accept Christ and repent his sins of watching internet pornography so that he may have salvation with God’s justification of TJ’s acceptance. TJ then needs to live a life filled with obedience to God sShow MoreRelatedSexual Ethics Essay1160 Words   |  5 PagesEssay Outline Thesis – Multiple outlooks have been taken on the ethics of pornography, and the means by which it may either negatively influence power in sexuality, or actually provide some sort of social value and worth. These different ethical perspectives display the flaws in the industry and what it represents; yet they also end up proving the fact that it can be modified with positive influence and that pornography is not something to be deemed utterly unethical. Intro – Power and sexualityRead MoreEthical Dilemas1230 Words   |  5 PagesEthical Dilemmas Choose only one of the ethical dilemmas below to address in your essay. The questions at the end of each dilemma are intended for you to reflect on. For your paper you must organize your writing using the sections and underlined titles listed on the assignment page. Do not copy the case study into your essay. 1. Pornography Joe secretly enjoys pornography. He gets a great deal of gratification out of viewing Internet pornography and masturbating, though he always acts behindRead MorePornography : An Art, Immoral, And An Expression Of Self976 Words   |  4 PagesPornography has created mixed feelings between groups of people. It is seen as an art, immoral, and an expression of self. Many different genres or categories of porn including; hard and soft core, lesbian/ gay, role playing, and racial just to name a few. Not only has the industry grown incredibly over the last decade, the controversy has also grown. I wish to cover both side of the issue in order to allow both sides an opportunity to shine. Pro Pornography Strip clubs, gentlemen’s clubs, chipRead MorePornography : A Moral Problem1894 Words   |  8 Pagesimmoral person sins against his own body (Corinthians 6:18). Pornography means writing, movies, and images about prostitutes of all kinds of sexual activities outside marriage. Pornography has become a moral problem affecting humanity all around the world because it’s something that is everywhere. Pornography has become available on the Internet reaching 4.2 million websites and 420 million pages. Imagine 12% of the website are pornography and about 47% are viewers. Today, people live in a world whereRead Morepornography right or wronga Essay1128 Words   |  5 Pages Pornography is one of the most controversy problems that humanity faces daily. It has materialized as a somber threat to the dignity of human sexuality and its deific purpose, perplexing the very nature of man and woman and signifying the falsification of mind in the existing age today. It has infested the purity and pureness of sex promoted dilapidation of humanity and advanced the marketization of sex, among other things. As a controversy problem, the issue of pornography requiresRead MoreAn Ethical Dilemma in Counseling: Deciding Between Two Rights624 Words   |  3 PagesAn Ethical Dilemma in Counseling: Deciding between two rights Ethics, considered the study of moral philosophy, is a broad way of defining human duty, right and wrong; essentially, it is more expansive than simply applying a principle. Dilemmas are situations that require a choice between options appearing uniformly favorable, unfavorable or mutually exclusive. Naturally, an ethical dilemma can place a professional counselor in a precarious position, thereby compromising the effectiveness of theRead MoreThe Ethical Dilemma Of Abortion1163 Words   |  5 PagesThere are many ethical dilemmas in the world today such as euthanasia, performance enhancing drugs, pornography, abortion and more. Someone’s worldview is often a big contributor in the decisions they make in regards to the dilemma. Abortion is one of today’s most contested ethical dilemmas (Beattie, 2011). Susan is a mother that is debating whether she should have an abortion or not. Her ethical dilemma case will be analyzed and compared from a Christian worldview perspect ive and other worldly perspectivesRead MoreReferral Reasons By John Doe1597 Words   |  7 PagesDoe has been known to use technology to view child pornography. As a result Adele Services has had to rigorously monitor his internet use. One of his goals is to appropriately use the internet for one hour each night in his home. After he uses the internet, his housing staff will view his kindle to ensure that no child pornography has been browsed. If he meets his goal, he can browse the web again the next day, but if he views child pornography his guardian will be notified and his kindle will beRead MoreThe Movie Running Scared By Paul Walker922 Words   |  4 PagesThe movie Running Scared (2006) with Paul Walker is full of ethical dilemmas from the start. Low-level thug Joey Gazelle (Paul Walker) was supposed to dispose of â€Å"dirty guns† that were used to kill two police officers. Instead, he hid them in his basement to be found by Oleg, Joey’s son’s best fri end and neighbor. Oleg’s stepfather was an abuser who came from the Russian mob. He abused his wife and Oleg on a daily basis so Oleg stole the gun to shoot his stepfather in order to save his mom and himselfRead MoreThe Story The Living Room 900 Words   |  4 Pagesapproach personal and intimate information. He says writers and editors often come in contact with the ethical dilemma of revealing intimate information, in this case causes of death or important life experiences. Such an intrusion may be necessary to paint a full picture of the life being written about, so Starck says that restraint and gentle imagery are ways to approach this ethical dilemma (376). However, unlike Weipert’s story, obituarists and journalists often have permission from loved ones

Free trade is a global public good Free Essays

In acquiring a greater understanding of the aforementioned terms, one would proceed to outline the cost and benefits of free trade and any barriers that are associated with trade which can prohibit the process of free trade. Once all the above information has been given, one can then analyze the information and make an inform decision on if free trade is a global public good. In defining trade, O’Brien and Williams stated that trade refers to the exchange of one commodity for another. We will write a custom essay sample on Free trade is a global public good or any similar topic only for you Order Now They further noted that whenever two or more individual’s exchanges goods and services they are engaging in the process of trade, which has been in existence since the beginning of time – through the barter system. It is important to note that trade is an essential social activity that satisfies humans’ wants, needs and desire; in other words, due to the existence of trade persons has improve their standard of living incredibly (O’Brien and Williams, 2010). It should be noted that there are three different forms of trade namely domestic, intra-regional and international trade. Domestic trade is also refers as internal trade which looks at the archiving and selling of local goods within the national boundaries of a specific country. It is believe that domestic trade functions as a link between producers and consumers; and it is sub-divided into two categories of wholesale and retail, through the exchange of goods and services. Trade is also done at the intra-regional level among members states of a regional bloc such as CAROM; this is mainly done to enhance regional cooperation through regional institution while primarily focusing on the economic exchange of goods and services. However, international trade is done on a such wider whereas the focus is on the exchange of goods, capital and services conducted across international borders. Due to globalization, industrialization and trade liberalizing, countries are allowed to engage in trade at all level rather to satisfy person wants and needs for domestic, intra- regional and international goods and services. It is important to note the principle of trade remains the same at all level and the only difference in the above three forms of trade is the cost and this is due to high level of taxes and trade barriers (Donkey, 2004). Some scholars argue for the movement of ere trade since it would remove all forms of trade barriers it would allow the world to trade freely with each other without any restriction. On the other hand, critics of free trade argue that free trade enhance exploitative condition where some nation has an unfair advantage over other due to their wealth and manufacturing capabilities. This is why it is argues that in theory, the concept of free trade is an excellent idea but in practice it is a human devastation on small island states and developing nations, as these countries lack the economies of scale that develop nations would have due to their size ND economic power (Donkey, 2004). Free trade can be defined as the absence of government restrictions upon goods, capital, and the flow of labor between nations, which could possibly hinder the process of trade. It is believe that an advantage of engaging in free trade is that it allows for nations to concentrate their effort on manufacturing specific product or service, where that nation can possibly have a distinct comparative advantage (Irwin, 2009). It is expected that under a free trade agreement a number of barriers to trade would be removed such as taxes, tariffs, import quotas and subsidies etc. If such is done, the implementation of a free trade agreement would allow foreign companies to trade their goods and service just as easy as a domestic company since they would be no restriction on trade. Additionally, it is believe that free trade will lower the prices of goods and set-vices being offer by promoting competition, innovation and specialization of products and services within a specific region (Irwin 2009). However as noted earlier, theoretically speaking free trade sounds like a perfect model but practically speaking it is not as easy a model to replicate and this is due to the fact that ere trade has numerous disadvantages to some states that would be involve in the process of free trade. Therefore, to leaves one to question if free trade can be considered as a Global Public Good (JPG) but before one can answer the above mentioned question, it is crucial to find out what is a global public good. According to the International Task Force on Global Public Goods; any goods or services that are essential for survival is a global public good and it should be made available for all without any charges (www. Nautilus. Org). Given the aforementioned definition, it Can be argued that the only global public good that is available in this world is â€Å"air’, since all other things in the world has a cost attach to it. However, it should be noted that global public goods is a new concept which is still in the developmental stages by academics, researchers and policy analysts. Typically speaking, a global public good is considered a global good when it has universal benefits, covering multiple groups of society and by extension the entire population. The World Bank defines global public goods as commodities, resources, services and systems of rules or policy regimes with substantial cross-border externalities hat are important for development and poverty-reduction, and that can be produced in sufficient supply only through cooperation and collective action by developed and developing countries (www. Rollback. Org). In practical terms, the determination that the development community should work cooperatively to produce a desired quality and quantity of global public goods that involves consideration of how such action should be implemented and how collective financing can be employed to ensure that the respective public good is not underselling. However, the united Nations (UN) declare that Gaps should meet two requirements, they must be â€Å"non- vial† (where both you and I can consume the good without affecting the utility either of us derive from its consumption) and they must be â€Å"non- clubbable† (whereas no one can be prevented from enjoying it the good, once it has been produced) (Gaul, et al. 2003). The provision of public goods is a key element of the quality of life and environmental sustainability. The underplays Of global goods may affect prospects for economic development and threaten global economic stability, peace and prosperity. There are a number of mechanisms that are needed for the effective delivery of public odds and services in some developing countries that are central to poverty eradication strategy. However, the role of public goods in economic development has been neglected in the mainstream literature and the current views of economic development need to be enriched and complemented by considerations of global public goods to achieve sustained high-quality economic growth, and to ensure that growth translates into effective poverty eradication strategies. This is essential to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2008). Although the Millennium Development goals are not secretaries consider as public goods by nature, attaining them requires investments in international public goods. For instance finding a new vaccine against malaria or developing an accessible treatment for AIDS, preserving the peace or creating easier access to knowledge, promoting financial stability or establishing a more open and fair trading system could have a greater impact on poverty reduction that could aid in the international arena (Entailer and Trifler, 2002). There are several categories of public goods that are identified in numerous literatures which are all closely related to five f the Millennium Development Goals: the environment, health, security, knowledge and governance. While it is believe that the environment, health and security are largely associated with benefits derived from reducing risk. Both knowledge and governance are primarily associated with enhancing capacity building. It is important to note that providing international public goods takes more than financial resources but rather it take takes the proper regulatory framework and institutional responses to ensure their supply. And that is where the greatest shortcomings remain. The world has made enormous strides in communications and interdependence between countries, but we have not developed the policies or institutions needed to manage these processes (Et Veldt, Hewitt and Morrissey, 2006). Free trade is regarded as a public good within the international political economy but the international community has a common interest in realizing the benefits of trade and the free movement of goods and services, which in turn requires co-operation. Due to the lack of cooperation among sovereign rational actors in an anarchical international society, the status of free trade as a public good appear somewhat difficult and even unlikely at times. It is assume that this occur due to the absence of central authorities within the international arena (Jones, 2002). In an international political system of individually rational actors (states) and no central authority capable of enforcing cooperation or providing public goods unilaterally, international agreements and organizations such as the General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GAIT) and the World Trade Organization (WTFO), are believed to be important and can be considered as an alternative mechanism to cooperation. The point is hat there is a need for an international regime which cooperates to achieve global public goods. One can argue that the benefits of free trade have differed on several accounts from traditional public goods and even if one tries to modify free trade to that of the classic trade theory it becomes even more problematic. Therefore, this leaves one with the question of if free trade is a public good and if so how can it be modify in such a way whereas everyone can eventually benefit from its existence (Hickman and Kookiest, 1997). The status of free trade as a public good serves as a point of departure specially for neo-liberal as it relates to regime theory on international cooperation concerning trade liberalizing. It can be argued that the existence of dilemmas of collective action leads to the retardation of the provision of public goods whereas international agreements and organization had failed to establish cooperation. The reason why the provision of public goods is so problematic is that it entails certain dilemmas of collective action, such as the prisoner’s dilemma (base on mistrust and manipulation to receive a specific benefit over others rather than cooperating) and the free rider lemma (enjoying the good without contributing to the provision of it) which are central in preventing rational actors from cooperating in the pursuit of global public goods. It is therefore, evident that international trade requires states to cooperate in order to dismantle the barriers of trade (Et Veldt, Hewitt and Morrissey, 2006). While some scholars would try effortlessly to make the argument that free trade is a global public good, one should note that there are a number of different barriers to trade, (politically, socially, environmentally, economically, and technologically among other). With all hose barriers against trade this leads one to ask a number of questions such as: Is trade is beneficial or harmful? Should traders be free to move goods and services across national frontiers? And if trade is to be subject to all these restrictions, what kinds of barriers should be imposed and what are the given reasons for such barriers? It is therefore important to know that within the global contemporary economy, international trade touches many societies and communities through direct and indirect effects. It reaches into our homes, places of work and our recreational venues, depending on one’s living arrangement and how deeply integrated one’s society is within the global political economy. This is why trade is of such importance to all because it impacts us all through the simple consumption of our food to the very clothes we wear on a daily basis; these are all evidence of the tremendous importance of trade across national frontiers (Jones, 2002). For one to further understand if global trade can be seen as a public good, one would need to analyze the cost and benefits to free trade in an international arena. The benefits of free trade have been espouse by the liberals, who believe that free read benefits everyone whereas it increases efficiency and raises the level of productivity. However in sharp contrast, radical and nationalist critics have argued that free trade undermine national economies, create uneven development and damages the environment. It can be argued that the liberals trade theory appears to have created a high level of skepticism in the minds of persons, whereas the liberals are proposing that both sides to a transaction can make a profit. Now in the minds of the average persons this appears as absurd, especially since the common view of transactions see one did gaining while the other side makes a lost. Contrary to popular believe, the liberals has made a case for free trade in which all persons involve can gain, based on the theory of comparative advantage. According to this theory, countries should specialize and produce goods and services for which they possess a comparative advantage (O’Brien and Williams, 2010: 150). The move toward freer international trade has its roots in David Orchard’s classical theory of comparative advantage, which is driven by inherent differences in a countries’ capacity – and hence the cost – to produce different products and arrives. Richard definition of comparative advantage includes specialization of a product, returns of scale, product differentiation and technological differences. He believes comparative advantages in returnable industries are those with high startup costs, making small-scale entry difficult which can lead to more gains from trade and robust economic development (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2008). However, mercantilism’s theories argued that the aim of a country was to increase its trade relative to that of its rivals hence increasing its wealth. For mercantilism, trade was a ere-?sum game with one country’s gain equivalent to another country loss. Contrary to other contending views, Adam Smith argument of absolute advantage was the first to counter the protectionist philosophy of the mercantilism who regarded a positive balance of trade and accumulation of capital as the main goal of any trade policy. Smith pointed out the benefits of international trade and the division of labor in his major work ‘The Wealth of Nations†. Smith notes that by specializing in producing what you do best and importing other goods from trading partners, one would gain both individually and collectively. It should be noted that Orchard’s singular achievement was to demonstrate that trade was a positive-sum game in which all parties would have benefited, even if one party had an absolute advantage in the production of all goods and services (Hickman and Kookiest, 1997). Under a liberal trading order, trade would be undertaken by countries according to their comparative advantage. Due to this, countries would improve their economic growth, become more stable, powerful and efficient since they would be specializing in the production of foods and services in they were the most efficient producers and enabling their nonusers to buy foreign goods at the lowest prices. Based on the rules of comparative advantage, specialization would promote efficiency and increase growth, as seen in the underlying principles of the modern trade theory. However, Orchard’s assumption that differences in labor productivity were the sole determinants Of comparative advantage is too limiting since it focuses too much on capital, labor and land. One can also note that the theory or comparative advantage appears to be very prescriptive since it suggests that the welfare of an individual country and by extension the world ill be improved base on countries specializing according to their comparative advantage (O’Brien and Williams 2010). From a liberal perspective, protectionism is inefficient since it reduces competition, and increases the monopoly power and thus the profits of the industries which benefit from protection. On the other hand, free trade increases the degree of products available to consumers, although ultimately it will reduce the degree of product differentiation in each country. The gains from trade come parlay from the greater degree of product variety and partly from the lower rice per product. The theory of free trade has emphasizes the gains or benefits from trade from a nation. There are two main aspects to be gain from the engaging in trade which are specialization which leads to increase productivity and economic growth; and diffusion of knowledge, innovation and production techniques which is closely linked to international trade. Trade is seen as an engine of growth as it advances the technological progress of society making production more efficient, effective and affordable within the 21 SST century (O’Brien and Williams, 2010). Despite the theoretical elegance, the theory of free trade is constantly being attacked by numerous critics. It can also be argued that free trade is meant to help eliminate unfair trade barriers to goods and services as well as raise the economy in developed and developing nations. There is a popular believe that free trade will create an unfair advantage to domestic supplier and it would reduce the number of jobs created in a mercantilism society. For instance, persons within agricultural base countries have argued that industrialization has hinder their attempts to industrialized since comparative advantage dictates that they antique to import industrial products whereas they might have a future comparative advantage in the production of a specific industrial product. In such a case, one can argue that it is necessary to implement the necessary protections for local industries, until they become competitive and can reap the benefits of comparative advantage (Lamer 1994). Another argument against free trade is that it places the precedence of national security over trade. In other words, it is argued that countries need to seek alternative methods of acquiring certain food apart from via trade in times of war and conflict. Simply put, it means that countries need to be self-sufficient in the production of certain strategic industries. It is also a widely accepted view that if free trade threatens the national security of a state, that it would be necessary for the government of the state to impose certain tariff and taxes on trade and even impose any necessary restriction if needed in order to protect the society (Entailer and Trifler, 2002). The third argument against free trade is that it is harmful for the environment, whereas the increase in farming, pesticide, emissions Of greenhouse gases and high energy usage as created a harmful impact towards the environment. The Global Development and Environmental Institute (EDGE), find the environmental impact as mixed whereas some countries have a higher level of environmental hazards than others. Therefore, the EDGE suggested that the WTFO imposes certain barriers and restriction on those countries which has a higher level of environmental pollutants in comparison to the countries which has fewer pollutants since free trade is contributing to the degradation of the environment (O’Brien and Williams, 2010). In conclusion it can be argued that ere trade is not a public good as it creates a number of disadvantages for some nations especially the developing countries. Such disadvantages include the loss of jobs, environmental hazards; inequalities in food securities and retardation in the development of industrialized products. Given the rules of the UN in regards to global public goods, in order for something to be considered as a public good it has to be able to benefit all persons and any usage of the item of product should not affect anyone. Therefore one can argue that free trade is not a global public good as it do not benefit all takeovers and in order for free trade to benefit all there need to be some trade barriers implemented on some nations and that in itself is against the rule Of a global public good. How to cite Free trade is a global public good, Papers

Clinical Appraisal of Qualitative Research †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Clinical Appraisal of Qualitative Research. Answer: Introduction: The scholar adopted qualitative research procedure in order to conduct the study. The study aimed at analysing views of older patients to obtain dignified care in hospitals. In order to conduct the study, data in form of interview was conducted across 17 wards of London acute healthcare from 3 hospitals (Tauber-Gilmore, et.al., 2017). The research design was appropriate for the purpose of data collection and arriving at conclusion related to the study. Research design can be correlational, descriptive, semi-experimental, review, experimental and meta-analytic in nature. The scholar here attempted at evaluating an important field relative to the study, however was not effective in catering to aims and goals of the study. The research design adopted for the study was comprehensive but did not include quantitative techniques or testing of hypothesis for drawing conclusive remarks related to the study. For this study descriptive study is adopted where survey method is followed, for this study. This research design management has been effective in achieving aims of the research. However, dignity is a complex concept in itself hence this study has been effective in achieving recommendations related to it. Recruitment strategy used in this study was appropriate for achieving aims of the research. Patients in the project were asked to participate in the discussion to provide feedback in information sheet (Baillie, 2009). Staff interview regarding their treatment to patients were recruited by snowballing technology. The scholar continued to recruit interviewees till data saturation was achieved. Each participant to the study was asked permission prior to their taking part in the rese arch procedure. Moreover, all participants to the study were asked questions at their convenience and within their convenient locations. As patients were interviewed beside their bed at their suitable timing. Staffs were asked questions when they were in staff offices. Data collection process used by the scholar was conducted in a manner such that the research issue can be attended. Data that was collected form patients was done so at their convenience in their rooms bedside as they requested (Tadd, et.al., 2011). Staffs during the process of data collection were interviewed in their private offices and not in any public space. Prior appointment with permission was obtained from patients and staffs which suited with the theme of the study. As the primary focus of the study was to understand dignity of patients, therefore this way was an appropriate method in data collection. The data analysis method adopted for this study is qualitative research procedure. The data collected by the study was sufficiently all rigorous in nature, the scholar had selected sample of participants of patients and staffs from across all departments. The participants in the study readily accepted and acknowledged to participate and provide feedback, which is the reason that sufficiently rigorous involved. The study moreover included data from each ward of patients across hospitals in London, which was sufficiently rigorous for the scholar to collect. Questions asked by the scholar were cove red almost all aspect related to dignity in care. However, data analysis procedure adopted for the study was only qualitative in nature. Which proves that inspite of data collection being rigorous in nature, data analysis techniques were not at all rigorous. The scholar could have adopted data collection and analysis procedure that was more rigorous in nature to arrive at detailed findings re lated to the study. The scholar has been able to establish rather delusional outcomes related to the study. Meaning that dignity was identified and its impacts along with organizational dignity and culture were established (Bridges, et.al., 2013). Yet, insufficient data was obtained related to training on dignity care or care of older people related to dignity. The concept of dignified care being complex in nature had not been analysed fully. Respondents especially staffs as nurses felt that they had knowledge pertaining to dignity care, however was unable to reflect on ways that dignified care could be improved for individuals as old patient care and for overall organizational levels. There have been inconsistent results related to outcomes of dignified care as a variety of outcomes have been obtained from nurses and older people in order to ensure dignified care in older people. It is integral for every research to establish a clear statement of findings at the end, which was not possible with this re search management. The scholars had not been able to successfully arrive at research findings related to the study. The research is extremely valuable as it is related to dignity care in older people. It has been able to provide qualitative outcomes related to dignity care (Matiti, et.al., 2008). However, the research has not been able to encompass any quantitative data analysis for the study, hence the results are not clearly understood as against the aims of the study. There are a lot studies focused on understanding impacts on dignity care on patients in hospital in old care. There are various factors that needs to be evaluated as training provided to nurses and care that older people get across hospitals in London. The concept of dignity is a complex within itself, it was also reflected form the fact by the way staffs and patients reacted towards it. This study had accommodated the concept of training for the purpose of attending dignity in patient care with regular freshers. Training of freshers reflects a crucial variable that is connected to older peoples care for long-term improvements in dignified levels of care. But major criticism of the study that had been covered includes areas related to deficiency in staffs and workload that impacts attitudes of staffs resulting in un-dignified care of older people. Though this study is conducted in extremely valuable field of study ye it has not been effective to cater to its aims in a successful manner. Meaning that the scholars in this research work have not been successful in conducting study to gather quantitative facts and information related to the study. The scholar has merely collected data and information of qualitative nature and then deducted findings from it. The study does not cover a wide range of area of research for arriving at a more conclusive research and findings for the study. References Lists Baillie, L., 2009. Patient dignity in an acute hospital setting: a case study.International journal of nursing studies,46(1), pp.23-37. Bridges, J., Nicholson, C., Maben, J., Pope, C., Flatley, M., Wilkinson, C., Meyer, J. and Tziggili, M., 2013. Capacity for care: meta?ethnography of acute care nurses' experiences of the nurse?patient relationship.Journal of Advanced Nursing,69(4), pp.760-772. Matiti, M.R. and Trorey, G.M., 2008. Patients expectations of the maintenance of their dignity.Journal of clinical nursing,17(20), pp.2709-2717. Tadd, W., Hillman, A., Calnan, S., Calnan, M., Bayer, T. and Read, S., 2011. Right place-wrong person: dignity in the acute care of older people.Quality in Ageing and Older Adults,12(1), pp.33-43. Tauber?Gilmore, M., Addis, G., Zahran, Z., Black, S., Baillie, L., Procter, S. and Norton, C., 2017. The views of older people and health professionals about dignity in acute hospital care.Journal of clinical nursing.

Analytical Paper

Analytical Paper APN is a diversified media company that engages in activities such as newspaper publishing, radio broadcasting, and outdoor advertising. The company is headquartered in Sydney, Australia.For fiscal 2004, APN generated revenues of AU$1.3 billion ($979.0 million), a 12.2% increase over the previous year's revenues of AU$1.1 billion ($872.2 million). The company reported a net profit of AU$128.3million ($97.9 million) in 2004, representing a 24% increase over 2003's net profit of AU$103.5 million ($79.0 million).Business DescriptionAPN is a diversified media company. It operates in three segments: publishing, radio, and outdoor advertising.The company publishes around 24 daily and over 90 non-daily newspapers throughout Australia and New Zealand. In Australia, it serves the regions of Queensland and northern New South Wales. In New Zealand, APN operates the New Zealand Herald, which has a daily readership of 603,000 people aged over 15, as well as a number of regional and community news papers and mass-market magazines.English: Anika Moa in Invercargill,NZ - 19 March 2...APN also operates printing businesses, as well as a security plastics company.APN's radio broadcasting activities consist of investments in around 12 metropolitan radio stations in Australia and 105 radio stations in New Zealand. It manages a joint venture, the Australian Radio Network (ARN), with Clear Channel Communications, a radio broadcaster in the US.APN operates outdoor advertising categories such as posters, street furniture, transit, and supersites. It also runs outdoor businesses in New Zealand, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The company's major outdoor businesses include Transit, Supersites, Rainbow, Kurnia, and Street Furniture.AnalysisAPN has links back to the pioneer newspaper families that brought a free press to the developing parts of Australia in the 1850s. These families consolidated their printing interests in 1968 to form Provincial Newspapers.In 1988, the company was acqu ired by Independent Newspapers of Ireland and changed its...

Article Report Example

Article Report Example Article Report – Book Report/Review Example Article Report: Mate-Choice Copying in Japanese Quail Coturnix coturnix japonica is a type of species among the Japanese quails. To determine the criteria that significantly affect how female Japanese quails are searching for their mate, the authors hypothesized that â€Å"female birds copy one another’s choices of males† (Galef & White, 1998: 545). To initiate breeding condition of female quails, the researchers placed them inside a stainless-steel cage for a maximum of 30 days. To initiate breeding condition among the male quails, the researcher purposedly placed the male quails with the females under breeding condition. On a daily basis, each male quail was paired with a couple of randomly selected female quails until the male quail would mount the two females for two weeks. To find out whether or not the authors’ hypothesis is acceptable or not, the researchers conducted a series of experiments using 10 male and 10 female Japanese quail that was taken from a commercial breeder in Ontario. The first experiment examines the female choices on male quails. The second experiment examines whether watching mating changes females’ criteria in choosing male. The third experiment examines how female quail chooses their male counterparts. The last experiment aims to monitor changes in female perception on male quails or male behavior.The authors confirmed that the researchers’ hypothesis which suggests the idea that â€Å"female birds copy one another’s choices of males† is acceptable. Based on the research study result, female quails that were given the opportunity to watch their non-preferred male spent significantly more time together with the male quail during post-tests as compared to pre-tests. Furthermore, watching male and female quails mate does not create any significant changes with regards to the preferences of female quails when choosing a mate. However, it was noted that female quails who mated with a non- preferred male becomes less attractive to them as compared to their non-preferred males whom they have not mated. *** End ***ReferencesGalef, B., & White, D. (1998). Mate-choice copying in Japanese quail, Coturnix coturnix japonica. Anim. Behav. , 55(3):545-552.

Children with Asthma Who Take Budesonide and Who Take Nedocromil Research Paper

Children with Asthma Who Take Budesonide and Who Take Nedocromil - Research Paper Example The treatment of asthma in children by physicians should be so effective that its end result is a child growing with near-perfect life devoid of constant chest and breathing complications. This means that physicians have to employ top-notch medical practices and procedures to ensure that this objective is achieved. Due to the fact that there has never been comparative analysis between the efficacy of nedocromil sodium and inhaled corticosteroids in treating childhood asthma, it is not possible to discern their comparative usefulness.5 Thus, the need for broadened research in this area cannot be neglected. Importantly, it is necessary to discuss the relevant terms used in this study. Key words that have been used in this study include; sodium cromoglicate and budesonide. To begin with, sodium cromoglicate is a type of asthma inhalant that is used regularly by asthma patients to prevent potential attacks. However, it does not help in cases where an asthma attack that has already starte d.2,4 On the other hand, budesonide is an inhalant used to prevent asthmatic attacks. Studies have shown that if used regularly budesonide decreases the symptoms and severity of asthma attacks. It does not however, relieve asthma attacks that have already started.In line with the topic, the paper utilized various databases like Google Scholar, Bing, Yahoo and many more to find relevant articles. Similarly, websites containing medical journals were accessed and important articles used in this study retrieved.

Leadership Article Critque Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership Article Critque - Essay Example Managers seek to have a better understanding of their employees and the work dynamics existing in their workplace. They also give employees more opportunity to grow individually and to involve them more in decision-making. The main issue addressed by the first article by Jim Sullivan is how to motivate employees to work for the company's utmost benefit. The major argument is that employees should be given an idea how the business works, instilling in them the viewpoint of the manager. It further argues that the manager has a huge role in motivating the workforce and that their efficiency is highly dependent on the manager's style. The article also stressed the huge role played by the employees in the success of the business. Frontline employees should be trained to think and work as their superior. Jim Sullivan recognizes the need of making employees realize how the firm generates revenue and how it losses profits. The second article focused on the group structures and the most efficient strategies to utilize in enhancing the performance of these frameworks. Two structures are identified: true groups which represent teams having the same goals; and working groups having members who are responsible for individual goals. The research done by the Filine Research Institute found out that true groups are highly interdependent. It was also stipulated that the most essential process to improve performance are enhanced communication and cohesion. On the other hand, working groups' efficiency can be greatly improved through cohesion while communication is only second. The two articles are the same in the sense that they prescribe measures on how to boost the performance of workgroups. The two articles also address the manager's problem of motivating their subordinates by employing proper techniques. However, the first one dealt with the employees mindset while the second focused on organizational structure. The findings of the study done by Filene Research Institute support the advocacy for this new paradigm. The conclusion showed that the success of an organization or business depends heavily on how its leadership and management respond to the specific needs of its work environment. I believe that the manager should, therefore, be familiar with the type of work dynamics that exist in his/her organization. Does it have "true teams" or "working groups" Only then can he/she direct the organization's resources to improving communication, cohesion, solving personal or task conflicts, etc. In addition to understanding work dynamics, I think that the manager should also have a better understanding of the worker's frame of mind. How can the employees be motivated to care for the company growth and not just be concerned with what they can get out of it Jim Sullivan, in his article Teach team members to think, work like owners, pointed out to "aligning the employees' mindset with the owner's perspective." (Sullivan, 2005) Sullivan outlined ways in achieving this, and the key is worker empowerment. Workers need to be empowered with knowledge about the company or organization they are working for. They also need to be empowered with the opportunity to learn how to improve themselves in their work. Elenko Zachariev in his article Peter

The Relationship between Drugs and Crime

The Relationship between Drugs and Crime Drugs: their use, misuse and connections with crime In this dissertation I would like to argue that the study of crime and drug use is complex. There are a number of diverse factors that lead people to misuse drugs; these are a mixture of social, psychological and economic factors. Age and gender are significant statistically but insufficient research has been carried out to explore these issues fully. In this dissertation we will consider how people acquire a physical and psychological dependence on drugs. We will look at the pressure that can be placed upon susceptible individuals by dysfunctional families and peer pressure. Other factors that will be explored are whether personality traits or hereditary factors play a significant role in drug misuse and any consequent criminal behaviour. It is also clear that there is a correlation between crime and drug taking but again this link is not clear-cut. It will be necessary to consider if there are factors that predispose people to deviant behaviour and drug misuse or if one factor leads to another, and if so in what direction. We will consider at some length what is being done to ‘police’ drug crime and conclude that although much is being done it is a difficult and growing area, needing the intervention of specialised crime agencies, such as the Serious and Organised Crime Agency (SOCA). We will conclude by considering that a great deal more research needs to be done to help understand this complex issue but that there are a number of areas where useful investments could be made. The first is in the provision of more skilled people to act as drugs counsellors, in order to help lower demand for drugs; the second is to co-operate with international bodies in forming policy to fight the global drugs business and co-operate internationally with enforcement agencies; the third is for enforcement agencies in this country to act in partnership with each other and outside agencies to help disrupt the supply of drugs by removing its supplier and their money and reducing demand by helping drug-users to fight their addiction. Only when all these measures are acted upon will any significant headway be made in the ‘war on drugs’. Definitions Before we embark on our explorations, I would like to define how I will use the term drugs in this dissertation; I intend to define drugs as psychoactive drugs; this is any chemical that ‘alters perceptions and behaviour by changing conscious awareness’. However, I will exclude recreational drugs that are accepted by society, particularly alcohol. The reason for this is to enable me to achieve a tightly focused argument within the limits of the word count. There is a great deal of research on alcohol abuse; much of it mirrors the misuse of other drugs, however, there are some significant differences, which would broaden out the argument too much. In this dissertation we will restrict ourselves to drugs that are outside of society’s approval. The drugs we will consider in this work fall into four categories: depressants, stimulants, opiates and hallucinogens. The depressants include alcohol, barbiturates and solvents. Stimulants work by increasing the transmission of nerve impulses in the brain; they include cocaine, MDMA (better known as ‘ecstasy’), and amphetamines. The next group of drugs, opiates have been known since the time of the ancient Sumerians; in 4000BC they named the plant that produced resin from its unripe seedpods, the poppy. From this resin come the opiate drugs. These depress neural functioning, suppress physical sensation and responses to stimulation, which is why the codeine and morphine versions of this drug are used as substantial painkillers. Hallucinogens are the final group and contain LSD, PCP and cannabis. In this dissertation, once we have considered what leads initially to drug use and misuse, we will look at the link between drugs and crime. I have defined above what I mean by drugs, I’d now like to define what mean by crime. Such a definition is not easy to establish. There is perceivable difference between the definition made by a research psychologist and a lawyer; one has a highly conceptualised definition, the other a legal one. In this dissertation, I will use Glen Walters definition of crime. In his book Drugs and Crime in Lifestyle Perspective, he defines it as ‘a rule breaking behaviour that, if known to legal authorities, would result in the rule breaker’s being charged with a criminal offence punishable by law’. Size of drug problem It is not an easy task to accurately record how many people take these forms of drugs on a regular basis. A National Survey on Drug Use and Health, undertaken in the United States in 2003, revealed that an estimated 3.7 million people had used heroin at some point in their life. It also revealed that 119,000 had used heroin in the month before the survey. It is perhaps encouraging that the British Crime Survey reveals that drug taking in this country amongst 16 to 24 years olds has decreased since 1998, although it has increased in people form 16to 59. A United Nations report, published in 2005, estimated that 200million people, or approximately 5% of the world’s population, aged15-64, have used drugs in the last year. Whichever figure is correct, the number of people who abuse drugs is large. In terms of the criminal side of crime, this is an increasingly difficult problem to deal with. The illegal market for drugs is immense, which attracts the attention of large organised crime groups. It is likely that dealing with this problem will be a major part of the work done by the new Serious and Organised Crime Agency. A major area that will need to be looked at is how to disrupt the flow of drugs into the country; this will be a complex undertaking. Using Cocaine as an example, the drug originates in Latin America, principally Columbia. Its then taken first to a secondary country such as Spain, Portugal or West Africa, and finally funnelled into the UK via France, Belgium or the Netherlands. Although, Jamaica, the Caribbean Island closest to Latin America, which also has a significant immigrant community in England, provides a more direct route into this country for drugs. Clearly, this means that the Immigration and Customs and Excise departments also have an important part to play in policing this ‘industry’. The structure of the argument In chapter one we will look at the physical, psychological and environmental factors that lead to addiction of abusive substances. In chapter two I will consider whether there is a link between addiction and crime; we will also consider the implications of the illegal drugs market on policing. In chapter three I will discuss the prevention strategies that exist. Finally, I will conclude by explaining that although it is possible to come to some conclusions in our study, it is difficult to come to a definitive conclusion due to the amount of research material and its complex and often contradictory nature. Chapter 1: The road to drug use and misuse Introduction In this chapter we will consider the factors that lead to drug use and misuse. We will consider how attitudes in general concerning drug use have changed and how this has led to a greater acceptance of taking medication. We will also consider the psychological factors that could contribute to a person first falling prey to drug use. There is evidence that socioeconomic factors may be significant and we will explore this idea; we will include a consideration of the increasingly sophisticated ‘marketing’ methods used by the sellers of illegal drugs. Finally, we will conclude that although there is a great deal of information on the subject of why people begin taking drugs we will see that it is very difficult to draw a conclusion from the information available. We cannot offer conclusions only suppositions. Changing attitudes to drugs People have been using drugs for a great deal longer than it has been considered a problem. Tammy Salah suggests that drug use has been prevalent since ancient times (Salah, p6). However, significant major changes have occurred in the pattern of drug taking in the last four decades. In the 1950s very few people indulged in any form of drug, other than alcohol or cigarettes, however, this situation has gradually changed until we have become a drug using culture. A number of reasons have been suggested for this change. Some have suggested that the increase in taking drugs for medicinal purposes altered people’s general attitude towards taking drugs; as they acquired the perception that a pill could cure physical problems and mental illness, they accepted the possibility that a pill could be used to counter other problems; others advocated the idea that in the 1960sand 70s people, particularly Americans, were exploring new life-styles, many had an increased amount of leisure time and looked for new activities to fill them, one of those ways to fill the extra hours waste recreational use of drugs. Roads to addiction This increase in drug abuse led to problems with addiction as people acquired a physical dependence on these substances. Gradually, after taking the drug for some time, a person acquired a tolerance, so needed more and more of it to achieve the same effect. They also reached a stage where cessation of the drug in the system led to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. At this stage they are said to have acquired physical dependency on the drug. However, this is not the only form of dependence that can arise; it is also possible to acquire a psychological dependence. This can occur particularly if a drug is used to reduce anxiety; even though no physical dependence occurs, the feeling of being without anxiety is addictive, which makes the drug addictive for psychological reasons. Dependence on alcohol can begin this way, the drink can acquire appositive reinforcement if it used to reduce stress, however, the more it is used the more the dependence becomes a physiological one. This is one of the most popular contemporary views of why humans self-administer potentially lethal drugs. It is believed that these chemicals activate the reinforcement system in the brain. Other natural-enforcers such as food, water, sex etc. also activate this system. It is possible to place drug users into at least two categories. One group of drug users take drugs for the effects they have on the senses; this group has been described as ‘novelty seekers’; the other group uses drugs to help them cope with other problems, they use drugs ‘as if they are anti-anxiety or anti-depressant substances’. One could conclude that this is the explanation for the apparent plethora of contradictory information as it would be counterintuitive to suggest that the same factors lead to these two models. Bio psychologists have done some of the most recent research into the development of an addiction. Their work is interesting because it is admix of physical and psychological scientific methods. It is important to consider their work, as it could have a significant effect on treatment and preventative programmes for the misuse of drugs. An article that appeared in the journal, Addiction, in 2001 suggests that addicts are not motivated to take drugs for the pleasure they provide, or the desire to avoid the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms, but because once drugs have been used the person develops changes in the part of the brain that render the ‘rewards systems’ and it becomes hypersensitive. These are not the parts of the brain that deal with pleasure or the euphoric effects of drugs but a subcomponent of reward; the study renamed them incentive salience or ‘wanting’. This leads the drug addict to develop compulsive behaviours in relation to drug-seeking. The researchers suggest that this sensitization leaves addicts susceptible to relapse long after they discontinue their drug use. It is also clear that some people become sensitised very quickly but others much more slowly. Another interesting aspect of this research is that the self-administration experience plays a significant part in the process, so that if the context is repeated in the future, even after drug misuse has ceased, the person will experience the compulsion to take the drug. This can happen years after the person has ceased to take drugs. A number of interesting facts resulted from this study that could affect our understanding and treatment of drug misuse. One interesting factor is that it is not saying that drug addiction is caused by chemical changes in the brain, what it is saying is that environmental factors have an equally significant effect as pharmacological ones. This factor is important as it has an effect on how to treat addiction. Another interesting factor revealed is that the brain processes involved in addiction are those that determine wanting not pleasure. This makes nonsense of the theory that the reinforcing factor connected to drugs is pleasure; drugs can become addictive in the absence of pleasure at taking them. This means that an unconscious motivational process can promote the act of taking a drug; this would explain why addicts, who report they are ‘miserable, that [their] life is in ruins, and that even the drug is not that great anymore’ are still ‘bewildered by the intensity of their compulsive behaviour’. However, it is interesting to note that even the authors of this study recommend caution; they accept that studies carried out on animals may not give the same results in human addicts. A great deal of interest has been shown by researchers concerning what, if any, personality characteristics make an individual more susceptible to become addicted to drugs. No individual personality type has been shown to predispose a person to drug misuse; however, people who score highly in tests for social conformity are less apt to misuse drugs. On the other hand, those who as children were rated by their class-mates as being impulsive, inconsiderate, lacking in ambition, with poor work habits, as adults were more likely to smoke, drink alcohol or take drugs than children not described as having those characteristics. Glen Walters concurs with this conclusion. He suggests the only positive evidence he has seen relates to some forms of early anti-social behaviour that affect a person’s future chance of abusing drugs and that this isn’t enough to provide a conclusive link. However, as already mentioned one must exercise caution concerning the conclusions reached from these studies as most of this research has been conducted on people with pre-existing problems, so one cannot be entirely certain that the characteristic did not result from the addiction rather tamper-date it. An obvious area to consider, particularly bearing in mind that the majority of drug misuse is done by the young, is the influence of, and relationship with parents. A study by Baer and Corridor in 1974suggested that children whose parents had showed little interest in them, or had used excessive physical punishment during their early childhood, were more likely to misuse drugs. Glen Walters confirms this when he quotes studies that reveal children who suffered parental rejection, either physical or mental, are more likely to indulge in deviant behaviour, including drug abuse. He suggests that a lack of attachment leads to an inability to fully ‘empathize with and relate to others’. Another study undertaken in 1972 revealed that people from home with conservative, traditional values were less likely to misuse drugs, than those from a more permissive and liberal home. However, it is not necessarily the parent’s values that contributed to the misuse of drugs but the potentially easier access to them. Ironically, coming from a ‘disrupted’ family (one where divorce or death has interrupted ‘traditional’ family life) does not seem to be factor in drug abuse in individuals. Parents are not the only group to have a significant influence, person’s peers can be equally important as an encouragement to misuse. The more substances a person misuses, the more friends they are likely to have who misuse substances themselves. However, again, interpretation of this can be problematic. It is difficult to know if these people have more friends who misuse because they have influenced them, or that the explanation is that they prefer to socialise with people with ‘pastimes’ most like their own. Walters concurs that although it appears that people are strongly influenced by their peers, it is difficult to provide evidence to confirm this conclusion. It is also important to bear in mind that although some people may be affected by the relationship with their parents (or lack of it) and influenced by their peers to act in a delinquent manner, the majority of people, under these circumstances, do not become delinquent or drug abusers, so these reasons are not sufficient in themselves to explain this anomaly. There are many links between deprivation, social exclusion and drug misuse. Amongst the factors that predispose someone to misuse drugs: the use of legal drugs in early life, school non-attendance, unemployment, history of public care, parent criminality and substance misuse, use of illegal recreational drugs. It is difficult to ignore the fact that ‘impoverished urban areas’ have higher rates of crime and drug abuse than more affluent areas. It almost certainly comes as no surprise that drug abuse rates are higher in areas where drugs are easily available, generally run-down urban areas. It is not difficult to believe that bleak circumstances can lead people to seek ‘escape ‘through drugs. Crime is also highest in these areas and it is easy to jump to the conclusion that these are linked; however, this link cannot be directly proved. The age of drug users is statistically significant, they are predominantly young and male, and may be getting younger. In the Home Office survey referred to above, arrestees who were drug users were more likely to be 25 and over, however, amongst men the numbers testing positive in the 20-24 age group was seen to be increasing significantly over the period of the research. This finding is repeated in the British Crime Survey. This demographic trend is also seen in the USA. Survey in 2003 by the National Institute on Drug Abuse recorded that in the previous year 314,000 people had used heroin; of that number the largest group were over 26, however, the same report recorded that from1995 to 2002 the number of new users varied each year from 121,000 to164,000 and of these 75% were 18 or over. More worryingly, the American survey recorded significant and stable levels of heroin abuse amongst school age children. The However, drug use seems to ‘peak’ at the age of 20. As we have seen, most of the users of heroin in the American survey were young men. The gender balance amongst drug users in England is also predominantly male, however, things could be changing, a Home Office crime survey showed a higher proportion of women testing positive for opiates than men 43% of women arrestees compared to 34% of men. Although the British Crime Survey suggests that the number of women taking drugs has stabilised. Tam Stewart suggests that their partners often introduce women drug users to drugs; they take them to ‘please’ their man. It has been argued that drugs have been ‘radicalized’ and that the perception is that black men are more likely to be offenders, and, therefore, more likely to be stopped by the police, than white men. It’s true that cannabis is widely used by the Caribbean community. However, much lower proportions of black men take heroin. The question that hasn’t been raised thus far is the question of hereditary. Glen Walters reports that a number of research papers, using data from family, twin and adoption studies, have been studied that seem to suggest that there is a genetic link in drug abuse. However, he concedes that these studies are difficult to interpret because it is difficult to take into account whether environmental influences have made a bigger impact than genetics. Salah also concludes that genetics may be a factor but that external and internal stimuli are more likely to account for drug use and abuse. Tam Stewart challenges all these explanations of what makes someone abuse drugs. She claims, ‘Heroin respects no barriers of class, race, religion or profession. There are junkies of 14 and 40’. She concedes that the majority of drug users come from poor and inadequate backgrounds; however, the fact that there are abusers from all categories suggests that poverty and inadequate family background cannot be the whole explanation. She suggests that one of the initial factors for people who take drugs is curiosity. Another factor that must be taken into account is that drug sellers are becoming more sophisticated in their marketing techniques and use disturbing methods of introducing people to the misuse of drugs. A ‘traditional’ method, bearing in mind drugs addictive qualities, was for street sellers to give ‘free samples’ to people who had previously never used illegal drugs. They soon became addicted to the substances and the seller had created a new buyer for his goods. However, with the increasing use of the Internet new ways of selling and marketing products have arisen. Buying a drug over the net is a much ‘easier ‘route into the drug scene, particularly for the socially shy and/or conservative middle-class teenager; the drugs are just as addictive but seem almost ‘legitimate’ when bought in the same way they buy their books and music CDs. However, a person acquires an addiction to drugs, it is clear that when they do it is not just a personal problem but also a societal one. We’ve looked at some of the reasons that may predispose someone to use and misuse drugs. In the next chapter we will consider what, if any, links there are between drug misuse and crime. Chapter 2: The links between drugs and crime Introduction Numerous studies have shown a link between drug abuse and crime; there are high crime rates amongst drug abusers and high drug-use rates among offenders. In this chapter we will consider the evidence that suggests link between drug misuse and crime. We will see how there is a great deal of evidence that shows a correlation but a link showing exactly how the two factors are related is much harder to find. We will also consider the types of crime most related to this problem and consider ways that have been used to tackle the problem. Causal links Earlier in this dissertation we have discussed how drugs are addictive and it has been suggested that it is this addiction that leads to crime. Drug use leads to ‘compulsive drug seeking’ and use. This compulsion fuels three types of drug related crime: crimes of supply, crimes committed to obtain money to buy drugs, or where the effects of drugs lead the user to act in a criminal way, for example dangerous driving or acts of aggression. The suggested theories to understand why people take drugs also falls into three categories: the moral model; the disease model and the behavioural model. There is statistical evidence of a link between drug use and crime. An on-going survey financed by the Home Office records the link between the misuse of drugs and offending. During the study 3,064 arrestees were interviewed and tested for drug use at eight police custody suites in England and Wales. This was repeated at the same sites two years later. Approximately 50% of those arrested were included in the study; juveniles and those arrested for alcohol related offences were excluded. The majority of those interviewed were white males and 90% of these agreed to undergo urinalysis. Urinalysis can detect drug use over the previous few days; in this study they were tested for six types of drugs were tested: Cannabis, opiates (including heroin), cocaine(including crack), benzodiazepines, amphetamines and methadone. Clearly these percentages are significant. A major finding of the research was that 65% of those arrested tested positive for drugs, around a third tested positive for opiates and/or Cocaine; less than 10% were positive for amphetamines and just under50% had injected heroin. Clearly this reveals a link between drugs and crime but on this alone they cannot be said to cause crime. During the interviews, however, around 90% of those who tested positive for class ‘A’ drugs reported they had committed property crimes as a result of their addiction in the last twelve months. Research carried out in other countries show similar findings. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics in the US, 50% of the inmates in US prisons in 1991divulged that they had used illegal drugs in the month prior to their arrest and 30% admitted that they were under the influence of an illicit drug when they committed their offence. An interesting finding is that offenders who abuse both illegal drugs and alcohol commit more criminal activities that those who only abuse an illegal drug. It is hard not to conclude that criminal activity is linked to drug taking. There are no clear causal links, however, between drugs and crime, despite much research on the subject that has shown that there are links between drugs and offending. A briefing paper for the Criminal Justice Social Work Development Centre for Scotland argues that ‘hanging around’ with those that do risky things, may ‘encourage or require the passage into various forms of crime to generate funds for purchasing drugs’. The paper argues that a further problem is that drug misuse leads to further financial and social difficulties; these in themselves generate more crime. A survey done amongst a Scottish young offender’s institution revealed that 95% of its inhabitants admitted taking illegal drugs. Yet again this Scottish survey does not give satisfactory explanation for this result. It has been suggested that there are two explanations for this apparent correlation between crime and drug abuse. The first suggests that drug use adversely affects a person’s ‘mood, judgement and self-control’; the second we’ve already mentioned, that is that the high cost of drugs leads the user to commit ‘economically oriented crime’. However, even these explanations are not entirely satisfactory. In the case of the first it is true that drugs can affect people in the way mentioned, however, not all people who take drugs experience these effects uniformly; second not everyone who takes drugs and experiences these symptoms commit crimes; therefore it is not unreasonable to argue that another factor must be involved. The second argument also holds true for the idea that the need to keep oneself supplied with drugs leads to crime. Glenn Walters tries to resolve this conundrum with his ‘lifestyle theory of human decision’. The three ‘Cs’ defines life styles: conditions, choice and cognition. In this theory he concludes that drug abuse and criminal activity are interrelated lifestyles. Walters believes that conditions do not cause drug abuse or crime directly but they influence behaviour by increasing or decreasing a person’s options in life. Walters concludes that choice is a very important explanation of the link between drugs and crime; criminal drug users behave in the way they do because they have made a rational choice that it is in their best interest to do so. Although he does not conclude that thesis the only explanation. It is clear from current research that young offenders have particularly high risk for developing ‘problematic drug use’, this is partly due to their use of class ‘A’ substances and to taking drugs intravenously. A Home Office survey, published in 2004, records that injecting drugs escalates both the health risks to the user and the social problems that go along with it. Amongst the arrestees studied for this report, around 65% used heroin and these were the most persistent offenders. Interestingly, one study in the US has suggested that there is no real correlation between drugs and crime. It is argued that because drug abuse and crime are not evenly spread across age groups, it is possible that they are not directly connected. There are a number of potential arguments for this. Firstly, is that it is possible drugs and crime follow a similar but coincidental age progression; secondly, it is possible that that these problems arise because of an underlying pattern of general deviancy; a final explanation is that the statistics show that the supposed link is actually a manifestation of low self-control making the person more liable to contravene social norms. However, none of these explanations are verified by research. Michael Hough in his review of drug related literature for the Home Office suggests that a distinction should be made between drug users and people with a heavy dependency, it is the latter group that is most likely to be involved in crime. Policing the problem Regardless of the causal links between drugs and crime, it undoubtedly causes major problems for the police service, enforcement agencies and the communities they serve. A Home Office report published in 2003 on the subject of ‘Crack’ begins by pointing out that ‘uncontrolled crack markets have a propensity for violence and intimidation that affects whole communities’. The report goes on to suggest that this problem haste be dealt with on two fronts: the supply of drugs to the drug addict has to be cut off and the demand for them reduced. During the last decade much work has been done in partnerships between the police another agencies, as these are considered the most successful ways to deal with the problem. These strategies aimed at reducing the demand for drugs will be discussed in the next chapter; in this section we will consider the response of law enforcement agencies. It is necessary at this point to consider in more detail what types of crime is committed by people misusing drugs. Much drug-connected crimes non-violent, more concerned with acquiring the money to fund the misuser’s addiction; these would include crimes such as theft, forgery or prostitution. However, CJSW’s briefing paper suggests that drug’s misuse can lead to violent crime in one of two ways; these are, (1) the effects of the drug can lead to aggressive behaviour, and, (2) violence can be used when committing the acquisitive crimes mentioned above. The paper makes it clear that these links are very much dependent on what type of drug is being abused. A study from the United States suggests that cocaine, particularly in the form of crack, can lead to violence, as can the use of barbiturates and amphetamines. However, overwhelming evidence suggests that the mostly likely addictive substance that will lead to violent outbursts from the abuser is alcohol. The area that would produce the best ‘return for money’ would be to stop the arrival of drugs into the country in the first place. The raw ingredients for most traditional drugs are not produced in this country; therefore, they have to be imported from abroad. Increasingly, the enforcement agencies in this country are assisting the international fight against drugs. Government is also helping address these issues, offering to help disrupt the opium harvest in countries like Afghanistan. The new SOCA has announced plans to have agents stationed abroad to assist in this disruption. Clearly, this is a major issue that requires serious measures. Much of the response to drug motivated crime has been met with moral outrage and dealt with accordingly; we will look at this in more depth later in the dissertation. The drugs industry is large and profitable, which is what makes it necessary to respond to this problem from a number of different appropriate directions. An article in the Economist published in 2001,states that ‘if only it were legitimate, there would be much to admire