My Philosophy of Education Essay - 711 Words

Philosophy on Education Education entails individual human development in the cognitive, emotional, creative and social areas. All children are entitled to a free education regardless of race, cultural background or handicaps. For education to be an effective part of the students life, the student and teacher must be actively and enthusiastically involved in learning. A teacher needs to be well prepared and organized. They need to know the perspective goals for each student and ways to achieve these goals. Teachers need to work with students to help them grow and develop ways to use their knowledge. Education is the most important aspect in ones life. Through the development of education, children learn knowledge and†¦show more content†¦There are many philosophies to consider when preparing to teach. The ones I wish to incorporate into my curriculum are those of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who believed that everyone posses in the depth of our being certain feelings and passions, and when these feelings are first shielded from polluted influences in our culture, and then liberated and allowed to control our conduct, may we posses true understanding and virtue. I also like those of Progressivism which is respect for individuality, relevant to the needs and interests of students. Along with these two theories I think educators need to include some perennialism which is a general, liberal, humanistic approach because we all need the basics and then build upon those to discover who we are and what we want to gain from education and life. I believe we have come to a point in our society where we have lost track of traditional American virtues and what our country was founded on. My wish as an educator would to be able to bring back some of the back to basics approach into the public school system. For teachers to really be effective we should choose the best of all philosophies, and combine them into a curriculum that workds for everyone?s needs and abilities. A teacher who is able to adapt their teaching techniques for each individual through determining how the pupil learns best. There is the visual,Show MoreRelatedMy Philosophy On The Philosophy Of Education844 Words   |  4 PagesIn mathematics, as in life, everything must be brought to the simplest of terms. I base my teaching philosophy on the foundation that every student is capable of learning mathematics. I will strive, as a teacher, to ensure that my students are able to have a strong foundation of mathematical skills when they leave my classroom. Some students believe that they are not ma thematically gifted; therefore, incapable of learning mathematics. I believe to the contrary, all students with motivation, sustainedRead MoreMy Philosophy On Philosophy Of Education852 Words   |  4 PagesMy Philosophy of Education My philosophy of education is founded on a belief that all students have a desire to learn and to feel accepted. Learning takes place when students are able to have their specific needs meet inside the classroom, to feel accepted in the environment, and find the learning to be meaningful. I believe that before learning can take place a proper educational environment must be present inside the classroom. In order to make any classroom work I believe you need meet three criteriaRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education As A Education864 Words   |  4 Pagesdifferent philosophy of education, and what purpose education serves in a child’s life. The five philosophies of education that we recognize are: Essentialism, Perennialism, Progressivism, Social Reconstructionism, and Existentialism. I would most recognize my philosophy of education as Essentialism. Essentialism has been a dominant influence in American education since World War II. It focuses on core curriculum of traditional academic topics. I believe that the purpose of education is teachingRead MoreMy Philosophy of Education824 Words   |  4 Pages13 February 2011 My Philosophy of Education I believe that progressivism educational philosophy most closely matches my educational ideals. In my opinion based on the progressivism educational philosophy, the purpose of education is to enable students to learn useful knowledge that has meaning to them in the future. Thus, the most useful education for students is the skill of â€Å"learning how to learn†. When students understand the methodsRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education And Education1038 Words   |  5 PagesMy Philosophy of Education When trying coming up with a personal philosophy of education, I had to ask myself what the purpose of education is. To me, the purpose of education is to teach students knowledge that is needed to make it through school and to succeed in the world after graduation. Anyone can go into teaching, but not every teacher can teach. Teachers go above and beyond to introduce methods, philosophies, and strategies to help their students learn, as well as, retain the informationRead MoreMy Education Philosophy 1511 Words   |  6 PagesPersonal Mission Statement Education is the imparting and acquiring of knowledge and skills through teaching and learning. As an educator, my personal mission statement is to master my subject area in order to serve as a role model for my students thereby producing students who thoroughly understand the subject matter, and who develop holistically. In order to achieve this goal I must have a set education philosophy with a strong Christian worldview. I must also have a general understanding of theRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education1056 Words   |  5 PagesPhilosophy of Student Engagement My philosophy of education is that every child should receive high quality education that is inclusive, relevant and meaningful to their life. I am a firm believer of making pedagogy relatable to my students. My vision is driven by my personal experiences with the American school system. I was what is thought of as â€Å"A child at risk†. I am an immigrant, black, Muslim student. My life is transactional as I am a part of multiple marginalized groups. Most of my teachersRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education And Education864 Words   |  4 PagesPhilosophy of Education Children are the future and their education is the key to our society’s success. When considering this, I realize I have an immense responsibility as an educator. The main focuses of my teaching are active learning, building character within students, and providing meaningful curriculum. I want to create a comfortable setting where every student feels safe to learn. In many ways, my philosophy agrees with the holistic approach to education. I feel this challenges the studentRead MoreMy Philosophy on Education814 Words   |  3 PagesMy Philosophy of Education I think when I made the decision to become a teacher I was not thinking the seriousness of this decision. When we become teachers we also become the molder that will shape our student to be successful in life. But when you decide to become a teacher in a Christian school you are not only shaping this student to be successful in life but we are also shaping their Christian mind to do things with a feeling knowing that they are shape and where made by the image of GodRead MoreMy Philosophy Of Education1015 Words   |  5 Pagesimmediately sparked my interest in becoming an educator and share my personal beliefs on the important aspects of education. In addition to this, I will present various traits I believe are essential and critical for teachers to successfully fulfill their role as an educator. During my elementary years, I developed an urge to frequently ask many questions during the school day. Being able to question anything was astonishing to me. This was because my parents were unable to answer my questions and help

Population Growth Is A Crisis Or Not - 1273 Words

Population growth is a great concern of some scientists and this topic has been debating for decades. Increasing of population has been put pressuring on natural resources because of demands of production and consumption are high. According to the BBC horizon documentary (2009), number of current population is about seven billion, seven times more than the last 10,000 years. One main factor of rapid population growth is eliminating from infected diseases. In the last 10,000 years people had a huge problem with infected diseases such as measles, malaria, cholera and smallpox and this could prevent population. When number of population increase, demand of food production and consumption go up and this requires a lot of natural resources to be exploited. Therefore, population growth could be a crisis or not? From Neo-Malthusianism or deep green perspective, capable of the earth to produce resource is limited compare to rates of human’s consuming pattern. In his essay, Malthus states that power of the earth s production is simply less than power of the population (cited in BBC horizon documentary 2009). This view is supported by another research, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF 2008) indicates global ecological footprint in 1988 was over the earth s productive capacity and by 2005 it will be more than 30 per cent of the earth’s capacity (cited in Harding, R, Hendriks, , Faruqi, M 2009). If we continue to absorb a mass consumption, we will be living in rare natural resourcesShow MoreRelatedFood Crisis And Population Growth1366 Words   |  6 PagesWritten Assignment Week 6 Food crisis due to population growth â€Å"Every child is a blessing†, â€Å"children are a gift from God†, â€Å"Once you have your own child, it will be the most precious moments of your life†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ These are comments one often hears in a society where families are deeply valued and considered as the most important aspect in life. It might be true, children are precious, but creating a family should always be a very thought through process. Overpopulation is not a thing of the pastRead MoreEnvironmental Crisis1553 Words   |  7 PagesEnvironmental Crisis We Have An Environmental Crisis Because We Have A People Crisis - A Crisis of Population Growth, of Wasteful Consumption of Resources, and A Crisis of Apathy and Inaction. An environmental crisis is an emergency concerned with the place in which every human lives - the environment. A people crisis is an emergency with the community that inhabits the world environment. A crisis of population growth is a turning point where the environment can no longer sustain the amountsRead MoreCompare and Contrast Brazil and China as Bric Countries1636 Words   |  7 Pagesalmost 30% to global growth in US Dollar terms, compared with around 16% in the previous decade†. Furthermore, even Goldman Sachs predicted in 2050 the BRIC could account for almost 50% of global equity markets. This essay will compare and evaluate critically economic growth prospect of China and Brazil as two BRIC countries in the context of the continuing long term downturn in consumption and lending in the US, EU, and Japan. Firstly, one of the important factors to evaluate a growth in a country isRead More Overpopulation of the Earth Essay1698 Words   |  7 Pagesnearly 6 billion people in the world. The world’s population has more than tripled in the span of a hundred years. Given that the earth’s population is constantly on the rise and seeing as how our natural resources are gradually being depleted, we must ask ourselves: what is to become of us and what is to become of our environment? In order to understand this question we must first have a thorough understanding of whether or not there is a population crisis. Having understood this, we must then look atRead MoreThe World Economic Crisis Of 20081701 Words   |  7 Pages Assessment Task 2 - Essay â€Æ' Essay The world economic crisis of 2008 was the worst global crisis after the great recession of 1929-30. The most affected economies from the crisis are western European countries. The economic crisis sub sequentially lowers the growth rate of the economies. A large number of American companies incurred heavy losses and it declines in the gross domestic product widely known as GDP of the country. China plays a significant role during the economic crises (LardyRead MoreEssay on Population Growth and Standard of Living945 Words   |  4 PagesPopulation Growth and Standard of Living Recently, the human population on this planet surpassed an amazing milestone. In the year 2000 it hit 6 billion, and without a sign of slowing down, continue to increase at an unprecedented pace. After taking nearly 3 million years to reach our first 1 billion, it has taken us only 11 years to raise our population the most recent billion (from 5 to 6). This rate of growth can be graphically interpreted as a J-shape pattern. If the past is any indicationRead MoreImpact Of The Asian Financial Crisis Of 1997 On The Region s Development1704 Words   |  7 PagesExamine the impact of the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997 on the region’s development â€Å"Since World war II, development has been the most important term used to describe economic, social and political changes in what have come to be known as Third world countries† (Zhang, 2003). The Asian financial crisis of 1997 had a major impact on the regions development as it was the end of the East Asian economic miracle, a time that showed staggering economic growth throughout the Asia Pacific. However, despiteRead MoreWater Crisis1293 Words   |  6 PagesSec. School , Egmore, Chennai NATIONAL SCIENCE SEMINAR WATER CRISIS ON THE EARTH PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES Submitted by A. NAVEEN ANTO, Sri Jayendra Golden Jubilee School, Sankarnagar - 627 357, Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu. Date : August 27, 2008 CONTENT â™ ¦ INTRODUCTION â™ ¦ WHAT DO WE MEAN BY WATER CRISIS? â™ ¦ WHAT CAUSES TRIGGERS THE WATER CRISIS â™ ¦ IMPACTS OF WATER CRISIS â™ ¦ REMEDIES FOR WATER CRISIS â™ ¦ CONCLUSION WATER CRISIS ON THE EARTH PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES INTRODUCTION Water the elixirRead MoreA Short Note On The Global Water Crisis1220 Words   |  5 PagesGlobal Water Crisis With everyday lives, people take showers, cook, clean, and drink with water. People may not think about it much, but water is very vital to life. Roughly about 97% of the earth is covered with saltwater. Yet, only 2.5% of the earth’s surface is covered with fresh water. The global water crisis is a major problem in the world, and most people are not doing much to conserve the water that is available. The world is in a high demand of water, yet there is not much water availableRead MoreThe Future Of The European Union1451 Words   |  6 Pagesrecent years, the European Union has been challenged by a series of problems and crisis including slow economic growth and recession, the Greek debt crisis; the Ukrainian crisis, the ongoing migration and refugee crisis, the upcoming UK referendum and the terrorist threat. How these events will shape the future of the EU in the years to come, how Europe will look in the next decade and how they will exit the current crisis are the bigge st questions that the Brussels, its institutions, leaders and its

Rise and Fall of the Romanov Dynasty free essay sample

The Tsar set up a system of government involving an imperial council, a small cabinet of ministers and a senate; all of which were implemented as personal advisers and delegates. The Tsar had control over who was appointed and dismissed, and no one challenged the power of the governmental system. To ensure the country operated effectively, a bureaucracy, merely consisting of the noble and upper classes put official policies into place. Many believed the bureaucrats were corrupt collecting bribes along with their wages. Practical measures were also needed to be taken in order to enforce Russian autocracy. While the police maintained law and order, the Tsars organised secret police called the Okhrana, for the surveillance of revolutionaries and anarchists while also censoring certain information and activities. The Russian Orthodox Church was a major influence in instigating the tsar’s autocratic powers. As the primary religion of Russia, the church claimed that it was the Tsar’s ‘divine right’ to rule and that his autocratic powers were derived from God. The church taught the Russian people to embrace autocracy and to love and obey the Tsar’s supreme power. The Tsar was described as being a dictatorial emperor and that neither a constitution nor other institutions limited the Tsar’s authority. The sudden outbreak of World War One was a great reflection of Nicholas II and his inefficiency commanding Russia. Before the war even began, hundreds of thousands of people had started to grow restless with the government. Many strikes and public demonstrations began to occur within the Russian borders constantly protesting for better working and living conditions. Many started to revolt and the citizens had their sights set on a change of government. Strong socialist and liberal encounters occurred for the Tsar and when he consistently brought disappoint and humiliation to the nation, much of the state grew sick of the tsarist rule. A major strike movement largely influenced by the humiliating defeat by the Japanese instigated the revolution of 1905. This day on January 9th was given the name ‘bloody Sunday’ as thousands of protestors marched on the Tsar’s palace and were massacred by members of the Russian military. This hint of a revolution resulted in the Tsar introducing an elected legislative assembly called a Duma in the parliament. However, even with a more efficient parliament, the uprisings continued throughout the year and for years to come with growing political discontent sending Russia on the verge of a national crisis. Then war broke out in 1914 saving the government from a large revolutionary movement and the country suddenly became fixated on an external enemy. This war deeply reflected the inadequacy of Russia’s military and economy. Almost a quarter of the army had not been issued with rifles and shortages of ammunitions, food and supplies became an epidemic. After endless defeats on the battlefield, many knew that the Russian army was fighting a 20th century war with 19th century training and inadequate equipment. As a result, the government strained to withstand the economic pressures, with the war costing 5 times the annual budget. Then in 1915, Nicholas II went to the battlefront as commander in chief leaving Alexandra in control of the government back in Russia. The Tsarina frequently took advice from Gregory Rasputin also referred to as the ‘mad monk’, who many believed became so influential, that he in fact was governing Russia. Meanwhile, problems in Russia began to exacerbate with increased prices, economic hardships, a decline in living standards and a growing domestic frustration which provoked more civil unrest. By 1916, dissatisfaction within Russian monarch had reached boiling point. Rasputin was murdered by the Tsar’s own cousins and the majority of the parliament and upper classes ‘were no longer willing to meet expectations of loyalty, respect and patriotism. Even though the Russian Revolution transpired quite suddenly, the foundations of it may have started centuries earlier. Since the 1700s, the ideas of European regime had begun to influence the minds of Russian citizens. Lower classes began to believe in democratic rights and equality, newspapers and books spread concepts about universal rights and many believed in a future with a just ruler and a more cultured society. From the 1800s, the Russian monarchy gradually became weaker and increasingly fragile. After the death of Alexander I in 1825, a group of Decembrists made up of thousands of soldiers seized advantage of a succession issue and demanded reforms plus a written constitution. This displayed a hint of light and prompted many to rethink the government system and their place within the hierarchy. Then after the death of Nicholas I in 1855, Alexander II rose to power and was referred to as the ‘great liberator’ after emancipating the Russian serfs in 1861. While the act earned Alexander public affection and respect, it angered landowners, created an economic crisis and also left the people wanting more. Some revolutionary groups then pursued a constitution, and after the emperor’s assassination in 1881, his successor Alexander III began to crackdown on public opposition and upheaval. The new Tsar was seen as an oppressor who tightened restrictions and enforced new policies that drove thousands out of the country. When Nicholas II rose to power in 1894, he was faced with intense resentment from the people. His ineffective ruling was the tip of the iceberg for most of the country and when the 1905 rebellion began, the emperor was forced to make more changes. The duma was introduced and civil liberties such as freedom of speech, protection and assembly were endorsed. A parliament was created on the basis of election which challenged the Tsar’s autocratic power. There were also growing pressures involving communism and socialism particularly after the split of the Russian Social Democratic Party which created the two major revolutionary groups of the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Despite both groups in support Marxism, the Bolsheviks with communist ideologies, were growing as the largest political rivals and the most radical revolutionary group in Russia. In addition, when the October manifesto was issued religion became a more flexible issue gaining support from Liberals who were searching for maximum individual freedom. This gave much of the nation a glimpse of a reforming government and a new hope for the future. Once the war started and tensions flared again, Nicholas II may have been the Russian leader; however only a very little population followed him. By 1914, Alexander Kerensky was in fact the parliament’s most illustrious radical who largely objected Russia’s involvement in the war. He was convinced that the country needed a major change and he openly called upon the emperor to step down at the end of 1916. While Kerensky was a great revolutionary leader, Vladimir Lenin was one of the major political figures and mastermind of the 1917 Revolution. Lenin led the Bolsheviks who had taken power in most of Russia and introduced communist rule by the beginning of the revolution. Lenin further went on to become the first head of the new republic of the Soviet Union. It is without doubt that Nicholas II was a major player in the Russian revolution and the fall of the renowned Romanov dynasty. For centuries, Russia believed in autocracy, but it was Nicholas’ objectionable beliefs and actions in maintaining his Tsarist rule, that ultimately lost the support of his people leading to the inevitable revolution. When Nicholas ascended to the throne it was clear he knew little about commanding millions of people. He was known for making poor decisions when it came to politics, the economy and military. Despite this, Nicholas gained confidence and inner power from the belief that his autocracy was a gift from God. Growing up in a Romanov family, came the belief that the Tsar was called to be God’s representative on earth and that it was their ‘divine right’ to rule. For Nicholas to object his autocratic power would mean that he would fail in his duty to Russia and his family, as well as in his duty to God and the church. As well as having unlimited power over the state, Nicholas II had full control over the Orthodox Church and the Okhrana. These two groups were so influential in the 1900’s and would assist the emperor in any controversial or scandalous matter. After Nicholas’ predecessors, in particular Alexander II, the new emperor felt grave pressure in pleasing the Russian people. Despite introducing the duma, the Tsar later has it dissolved because he was not willing to give up his unlimited power. With the country constantly on the brink of civil unrest and revolts, this move reflected Nicholas’ poor decision making and his need for superiority. Many would argue that Nicholas II abused his autocratic authority and failed to keep up with other western powers. Before the revolution, Russia was mainly a large agricultural country, and it wasn’t until the 1900s that the country started to industrialise. Because of the lack of modernism, Russia was unable to survive the war and withstand its repercussions. When people started to focus on the war, the discontent towards Tsarist rule eased down, however it was once again Nicholas’ decisions that angered the Russian public and military even further. As the war was nearing its end, Russian anarchists and revolutionaries had already reached the point of no return. By 1917, hundreds of social activists and the majority of the working class had gone on strike, protesting in the streets. Students, farmers and the majority of the nobility joined in the demonstrations as the outbursts became more frequent. When Nicholas was informed of the seriousness of the events, he commanded General Khabalov to impose any force necessary to contain the violence. When news spread that the Tsar used string military force to restore order, other soldiers, police and members of the parliament joined the rebels with weapons at their sides. Nicholas received a telegram from the Chairman of the duma saying ‘state authority is totally paralysed and utterly unable to reimpose order. ’ With all authority having collapsed, Nicholas II abdicated marking the beginning of a new phase of Russian life. The Bolsheviks then took over the government under the command of Marxist, Vladimir Lenin and the Romanov Dynasty had finally reached its conclusion.

Online Shopping Safety free essay sample

Are you going to shop online this year? There are many people who shop online and have done so for several years without incident. Considering all the internet transactions that take place, various studies suggest that the percentage of those that are fraudulent are actually very small. Nonetheless, it only takes one time to put your financial world into a downward spiral. Today, I hope to empower you with some knowledge of what you can do to reduce the likelihood of being a target of fraud while shopping online. I’m going to give you tips on where to shop safely, what to look for, things about the technologies you’re going to use to do your shopping and finally tips on purchasing things on the internet. So, let’s get started! BODY: I. Where to shop safely. A. Stick to the retailers that you know. 1. Go directly to the retailer’s website. We will write a custom essay sample on Online Shopping Safety or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Avoid clicking on links from other pages that you think are going to take you there. 2. Beware of any misspellings on the domain address of the page. B. When in doubt check them out!! There are several ways that you can check this. . Is it a secure site? a. Sites are secure through a process of encryption, which is the technology that scrambles sensitive information (like your credit card number) so that only the designated merchant can read it. b. Look at the website’s URL and make sure that the address starts with HTTPS or that the padlock is closed on your browser when you are entering your financial information. 2. Additional security verifications are done through 3rd party companies. c. BBBOnline (Better Business Bureau Online) and Truste are most recognized and recommended. d. Recognize that these are just logos and you need to go to the actual 3rd party’s site and verify. II. Next, let’s take a look at the device (i. e. computer, tablet, smart phone) you use to do your online shopping. A. Is it a personal or shared (meaning public) machine? You want to avoid shopping on a shared device because of the possible spyware that may be installed on it. 1. Shopping at home is the preferred way, although mobile shopping is becoming increasing popular due to smart phones. Be extra cautious in verifying the credibility of the site in this scenario. 2. Make sure the Wi-Fi you are using is password protected and stick to familiar Wi-Fi hotspots (i. e. Starbucks). 3. Keep your browser up to date with the latest version. B. Make sure you have an internet security suite that includes an antivirus, firewall and antispyware installed and up to date with latest version. 1. Don’t click on links in emails as sometimes they have viruses attached to them. 2. Don’t click on unsolicited messages with . exe file extension unless it is from a trusted source. III. Now and most importantly, let’s talk about how we purchase things on the internet. A. There are many ways to pay for our purchases. 1. First let’s talk about debit vs. credit cards. Credit cards are the safest way to purchase. This is because you have the option of doing charge backs if needed, whereas, with debit cards you don’t have that option. 2. You can also use gift cards. 3. Another trending way is called online only or virtual credit cards which is where a bank or credit card company gives you a credit card number that is not your real account number but is able to make online purchases. 4. Alternately, if your still not sure or just don’t feel comfortable giving your credit information out, many online retailers have the option for you to order products online and pay for them over the phone. B. And finally, keep a paper trail. Print and save all your online transactions. Also, check your credit card statements as soon as you get them or check them online regularly as you practice your safe shopping habits. CONCLUSION: So, if you’re going to do some shopping online, remember, where to shop safely, use a secure site, computer and payment method and finally keep a good paper trail!

Perdón I-212 por deportación de Estados Unidos

Perdà ³n I-212 por deportacià ³n de Estados Unidos Los extranjeros deportados o expulsados de Estados Unidos reciben una penalidad y no pueden ingresar legalmente por un tiempo de castigo, excepto si obtienen un perdà ³n conocido como waiver I-212. El tiempo de castigo puede ser de 5, 10, à ³ 20 aà ±os o incluso de por vida, dependiendo de la razà ³n de la deportacià ³n. En este artà ­culo se explica cundo no es necesario pedir este waiver, tambià ©n conocido en algunos paà ­ses como perdà ³n o permiso, cà ³mo se solicita cuando sà ­ es necesario, tarifa que debe pagarse con la solicitud, tiempo que se demora en resolverse, quà © hacer si se obtiene la aprobacià ³n de este perdà ³n y cundo es necesario adems presentar otro perdà ³n conjuntamente.  ¿Cundo NO es necesario solicitar este perdà ³n? No todos los extranjeros que han sido expulsados o deportados de Estados Unidos necesitan este perdà ³n como paso previo para solicitar una visa no inmigrante -como por ejemplo la de turista o trabajo temporal -  o una visa de inmigrante  para la tarjeta de residencia (green card). Por lo tanto, si no se necesita, no solicitarlo, porque serà ­a una pà ©rdida de tiempo y de dinero. Y es que no precisan pedir este perdà ³n las personas en cualquiera de las siguientes categorà ­as: 1. - Los extranjeros que llegaron a un puesto migratorio de Estados Unidos y se les permitià ³ retirar su solicitud de ingresar al paà ­s. 2.- Los extranjeros que al llegar a un puesto migratorio de Estados Unidos fueron parados y se les impidià ³ el ingreso al paà ­s pero no fueron objeto de una expulsià ³n inmediata oficial. Esto es muy importante, porque hay que distinguir cuando ha habido una expulsià ³n y cuando simplemente no se admite al extranjero y se le devuelve al paà ­s del que ha llegado. Esta diferencia es fundamental. Hay que mirar quà © papeles se firmaron o fueron entregados. 3.- Los extranjeros que fueron parados en la frontera intentando cruzar ilegalmente pero, por la razà ³n que sea, no recibieron una orden de expulsià ³n inmediata. Es muy importante saber si se recibià ³ una o no. 4- Los extranjeros que llegaron a un puesto migratorio sin visa por pertenecer a un paà ­s de Programa de Exencià ³n de Visados y no se les permitià ³ el ingreso. Esto es importante para los turistas y personas de negocio chilenos y espaà ±oles. 5.- Los casos de salida voluntaria, cuando se salià ³ de Estados Unidos dentro del plazo previsto. Esta es una excepcià ³n muy importante. 6. - Los solicitantes de visa U por và ­ctima de violencia que se encuentran en Estados Unidos y piden un ajuste de estatus. 7.- Y, por à ºltimo, aquellos expulsados o deportados de Estados Unidos que ya han cumplido el tiempo de la penalidad. Por lo tanto, es fundamental saber el monto de los aà ±os que aplican a cada caso. Y es que para algunos extranjeros la penalidad dura 5 aà ±os, para otros es de 10 y para otros, 20 y, finalmente, para otro grupo existe lo que se conoce como prohibicià ³n permanente (permanent  bar en inglà ©s). Para conocer con certeza por cunto tiempo es la penalidad y los cargos se deben consultar los rà ©cords de corte, en casos de deportacià ³n, incluyendo la orden del juez y el documento que se denomina Notice to Appear in Removal Procedeedings. En el caso de expulsià ³n inmediata, es aconsejable tener el rà ©cord de la CBP (Patrulla fronteriza) y del Notice of Expedited Removal. En los casos en los que la dicta un juez por ser un caso de arriving alien tambià ©n es importante ese documento. En otras palabras, solo es necesario solicitar este perdà ³n si todavà ­a no ha pasado el tiempo de la penalidad y se quiere solicitar una visa no inmigrante o una visa inmigrante para ingresar a Estados Unidos. En este punto puede surgir la duda de quà © pasa con aquellos extranjeros que tienen una penalidad de prohibicià ³n permanente,  ¿pueden pedir un perdà ³n? La respuesta es que sà ­ en las siguientes condiciones: En primer lugar, si la prohibicià ³n permanente es porque se estuvo ilegalmente en Estados Unidos por ms de un aà ±o (no tiene que ser corrido), despuà ©s se salià ³ del paà ­s y se ingresà ³ o se intentà ³ ingresar posteriormente de forma ilegal y se desea pedir una visa no inmigrante, en este caso se puede pedir el perdà ³n en cualquier momento. Tener en cuenta que para la visa de inmigrante las reglas son distintas y es lo que se explica ms abajo. En segundo lugar, lo mismo sucede para los migrantes que fueron removidos de Estados Unidos y que despuà ©s ingresaron ilegalmente o fueron agarrados cuando lo intentaban. En este caso tambià ©n aplica una prohibicià ³n permanente pero se puede pedir el perdà ³n en cualquier momento si lo que se desea solicitar a continuacià ³n es una visa no inmigrante. Un caso distinto es cuando se quiere solicitar la visa de inmigrante en los 2 supuestos anteriores y tambià ©n todos los dems casos de prohibicià ³n permanente ya es necesario poder demostrar ausencia de Estados Unidos por al menos 10 aà ±os antes de poder solicitar el perdà ³n.  ¿Cà ³mo se pide el perdà ³n I-212 para ingresar a EE.UU. despuà ©s de deportacià ³n? Por regla general el perdà ³n se pide llenando el formulario I-212, si bien hay unas pocas excepciones cuando se solicita una visa no inmigrante en determinados consulados de los Estados Unidos. Tambià ©n puede haber variaciones segà ºn el caso en lo referente a la cuota por aplicar y a la necesidad de aportar datos biomà ©tricos (huellas digitales y fotografà ­as). El formulario debe ir acompaà ±ado de documentos que se piden en las instrucciones del formulario y adems de aquellos  que sirvan de apoyo a la razà ³n por la que se solicita el perdà ³n. Entre ellos, destacan: Certificados de hijos, matrimonio, etc para probar existencia de familiares inmediatos en Estados UnidosDeclaraciones juradas de personas que afirmen que la persona que pide el perdà ³n es de buena moralreportes mà ©dicos o psicolà ³gicos para probar la dureza por la que pasan los familiares en Estados Unidos debido a la separacià ³n causada por la deportacià ³n.Reporte policial para demostrar un rà ©cord limpioEvidencia de rehabilitacià ³n si en el pasado se ha cometido algà ºn delitoCertificados de estudios o profesionales para probar capacidades de empleoReporte sobre la situacià ³n del paà ­s en la que se tiene que vivir si no se permite el regreso a Estados Unidos, etc. Si alguno de estos documentos est en un idioma distinto al inglà ©s, debe traducirse. Este listado debe entenderse como una sugerencia y deben incluirse todo lo que sirva para merecer el perdà ³n. El oficial de migracià ³n tiene libertad para decidir si aprueba la solicitud de perdà ³n. No existen reglas absolutas pero se considera que son factores a favor de su aprobacià ³n los siguientes: La existencia de familiares inmediatos en Estados Unidosla situacià ³n de dureza que puede ser causada al familiar en Estados Unidos, siempre que sea un ciudadano o un residente permanente legal. Incluso se puede considerar la dureza que se causa al empleador que se tenà ­a.El tiempo que se vivià ³ en Estados Unidos. Cuanto ms, mejor.El estatus migratorio que se tenà ­a antes de ser removido. Por ejemplo, si se tenà ­a la green card o una visa.La falta de rà ©cord delictivo o si se ha cometido uno, que no sea grave.En el caso de las expulsiones, cuenta a favor tener sà ³lo 1. Ms de una expulsià ³n aumenta las posibilidades de negacià ³n del perdà ³n.El ser considerado persona con buena moral. Aquà ­ podrà ­a ser un problema situaciones de falta de pago de pensià ³n alimenticia, etc.Si ya ha transcurrido mucho tiempo desde la expulsià ³n o deportacià ³n.La probabilidad de convertirse en residente permanente legal en el futuro. Es decir, se tiene una peticià ³n de resid encia realizada por un empleador o un familiar. Por el contrario, se consideran factores en contra a la hora de decidir sobre la aprobacià ³n del perdà ³n los siguientes: Ausencia de familiares en Estados Unidos o que los familiares no dependan de ningà ºn modo de la persona deportada.Historial delictivo, particularmente cuando se trata de un delito grave o agravado.Mal carcter moralVarias violaciones migratoriasMs de 1 intento de ingreso ilegal a Estado UnidosProbabilidad de convertirse en una carga pà ºblica o se es un peligro para la seguridad de Estados UnidosEnfermedad fà ­sica o mental, excepto si el à ºnico lugar donde puede recibir tratamiento es en Estados Unidos.  Si pasà ³ poco tiempo desde la deportacià ³n o expulsià ³n.Si en el pasado se trabajà ³ ilegalmente en los Estados Unidos. Tiempo de demora del perdà ³n I-212 y cuota por la peticià ³n En la actualidad, la totalidad de las solicitudes de perdà ³n I-212 se resuelven en menos de 180 dà ­as, es decir, seis meses.   En el momento en el que se escribe este artà ­culo, la cuota por aplicar es de $930, que debe pagarse al Servicio de Inmigracià ³n y Ciudadanà ­a (USCIS, por sus siglas en inglà ©s).  ¿Quà © pasa si se obtiene la aprobacià ³n del perdà ³n I-212? Ese perdà ³n es vlido de por vida, a menos que la agencia que lo concedià ³ lo revoque o que la persona cometa algà ºn delito o infraccià ³n migratoria que dà © lugar a una nueva deportacià ³n o expulsià ³n. Sin embargo, el perdà ³n no restaura nunca a la situacià ³n anterior al problema que dio lugar a la deportacià ³n o a la expulsià ³n. Por ejemplo, si se tuvo una visa de turista, no se recupera, o una tarjeta de residencia, etc. Adems, el tener el perdà ³n aprobado por sà ­ mismo no es suficiente para poder ingresar a Estados Unidos. Es decir, hay que solicitar una visa no inmigrante o tener una peticià ³n de visa inmigrante. Cualquiera de estas visas puede ser denegada si no se cumplen todos los requisitos para su aprobacià ³n. En el caso de las visas no inmigrante el problema puede surgir por no ser elegible o por no ser admisible. En el caso de las visas de inmigrante, sà ³lo por causa de inadmisibilidad. Precisamente para muchas causas de inadmisibilidad es posible pedir un perdà ³n. Para las causas que convierten a una persona en inelegible no es posible. Teniendo en cuenta esto, es importante leer el siguiente apartado.  ¿Es necesario pedir otros perdones conjuntamente con  I-212? Dependiendo del caso de cada uno, puede ser imprescindible presentar 1 o ms perdones conjuntamente con el I-212, ya que à ©ste solo sirve para la penalidad de la deportacià ³n o expulsià ³n. Por ejemplo, si se quiere es obtener una visa de inmigrante y hay otros problemas de inadmisibilidad como el castigo de los 3 à ³ 10 aà ±os, fraude de ley, comisià ³n de delito,enfermedad etc. entonces se necesita tambià ©n pedir el perdà ³n I-601, que tiene requisitos muy exigentes. Pero si se desea pedir una visa no inmigrante y hay ms causas de inadmisibilidad adems de la remocià ³n, tambià ©n se debe pedir otro tipo de perdà ³n.    Adems, es posible que el problema sea una causa de inadmisibilidad contra la cual no es posible pedir jams un perdà ³n, como por ejemplo tener en contra una declaracià ³n de haber solicitado previamente de forma frà ­vola la condicià ³n de asilo. Otro ejemplo es haber declarado falsamente ser ciudadano estadounidense para obtener un beneficio. Asimismo, no hay perdà ³n en los casos de delito de drogas cometidos despuà ©s de cumplir los 18 aà ±os, con la à ºnica excepcià ³n de posesià ³n de mariguana para uso propio o en los casos de matrimonio de conveniencia para obtener los papeles. Debido a que los casos de perdones son muy complicados es altamente aconsejable asesorarse por un buen abogado especialista en estos asuntos.  ¿Cul es la penalidad si se ingresa a Estados Unidos sin el perdà ³n I-212? Si se ingresa ilegalmente cuando est pendiente de cumplir el castigo por la expulsià ³n o la deportacià ³n automticamente se reinstaura la orden de deportacià ³n, de tal manera que si se es detenido o arrestado se proceder a su deportacià ³n sin pasar por Corte. Adems, es posible que apliquen multas y que se den cargos penales por los que puede haber pena de prisià ³n.Finalmente, cae sobre esa persona la prohibicià ³n permanente para regresar a Estados Unidos. Consejos legales Es muy importante entender las dificultades de obtener un perdà ³n y, honestamente, que la mayorà ­a que son aprobados han sido preparados por abogados migratorios reputados con experiencia en este tipo de casos. En esta pgina no se recomienda a ningà ºn letrado en particular, pero sà ­ se aconseja verificar con AILA, la asociacià ³n de abogados migratorios, para consultar sobre este tipo de casos. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asesorà ­a legal.

Medieval Christmas Traditions

Medieval Christmas Traditions Among the Pagan traditions that have become part of Christmas is burning the yule log. This custom springs from many different cultures, but in all of them, its significance seems to lie in the iul or wheel of the year. The Druids would bless a log and keep it burning for 12 days during the winter solstice; part of the log was kept for the following year when it would be used to light the new yule log. For the Vikings, the yule log was an integral part of their celebration of the solstice, the julfest; on the log, they would carve runes representing unwanted traits (such as ill fortune or poor honor) that they wanted the gods to take from them. Wassail comes from the Old English words waes hael, which means be well, be hale, or good health. A strong, hot drink (usually a mixture of ale, honey, and spices) would be put in a large bowl, and the host would lift it and greet his companions with waes hael, to which they would reply drinc hael, which meant drink and be well. Over the centuries some non-alcoholic versions of wassail evolved. Other customs developed as part of Christian belief. For example, Mince Pies (so called because they contained shredded or minced meat) were baked in oblong casings to represent Jesus crib, and it was important to add three spices (cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg) for the three gifts given to the Christ child by the Magi. The pies were not very large, and it was thought lucky to eat one mince pie on each of the twelve days of Christmas (ending with Epiphany, the 6th of January). Food Traditions The ever-present threat of hunger was triumphantly overcome with a feast, and in addition to the significant fare mentioned above, all manner of food would be served at Christmas. The most popular main course was goose, but many other meats were also served. Turkey was first brought to Europe from the Americas around 1520 (its earliest known consumption in England is 1541), and because it was inexpensive and quick to fatten, it rose in popularity as a Christmas feast food. Humble (or umble) pie was made from the humbles of a deer the heart, liver, brains and so forth. While the lords and ladies ate the choice cuts, the servants baked the humbles into a pie (which of course made them go further as a source of food). This appears to be the origin of the phrase, to eat humble pie. By the seventeenth century, Humble Pie had become a trademark Christmas food, as evidenced when it was outlawed along with other Christmas traditions by Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan government. The Christmas pudding of Victorian and modern times evolved from the medieval dish of frumenty a spicy, wheat-based dessert. Many other desserts were made as welcome treats for children and adults alike. Christmas Trees and Plants The tree was an important symbol to every Pagan culture. The oak, in particular, was venerated by the Druids. Evergreens, which in ancient Rome were thought to have special powers and were used for decoration, symbolized the promised return of life in the spring and came to symbolize eternal life for Christians. The Vikings hung fir and ash trees with war trophies for good luck. In the middle ages, the Church would decorate trees with apples on Christmas Eve, which they called Adam and Eve Day. However, the trees remained outdoors. In sixteenth-century Germany, it was the custom for a fir tree decorated with paper flowers to be carried through the streets on Christmas Eve to the town square, where, after a great feast and celebration that included dancing around the tree, it would be ceremonially burned. Holly, ivy, and mistletoe were all important plants to the Druids. It was believed that good spirits lived in the branches of holly. Christians believed that the berries had been white before they were turned red by Christs blood when he was made to wear the crown of thorns. Ivy was associated with the Roman god Bacchus and was not allowed by the Church as decoration until later in the middle ages when a superstition that it could help recognize witches and protect against plague arose. Entertainment Traditions Christmas may owe its popularity in medieval times to liturgical dramas and mysteries presented in the church. The most popular subject for such dramas and tropes was the Holy Family, particularly the Nativity. As interest in the Nativity grew, so did Christmas as a holiday. Carols, though very popular in the later middle ages, were at first frowned on by the Church. But, as with most popular entertainment, they eventually evolved to a suitable format, and the Church relented. The Twelve Days of Christmas may have been a game set to music. One person would sing a stanza, and another would add his own lines to the song, repeating the first persons verse. Another version states it was a Catholic catechism memory song that helped oppressed Catholics in England during the Reformation remember facts about God and Jesus at a time when practicing their faith could get them killed. (If you would like to read more about this theory, please be warned that it contains graphic descriptions of the violent nature in which Catholics were executed by the Protestant government and has been refuted as an Urban Legend.) Pantomimes and mumming were another form of popular Christmas entertainment, particularly in England. These casual plays without words usually involved dressing up as a member of the opposite gender and acting out comic stories. Note:Â  This feature originally appeared in December 1997, and was updated in December 2007 and again in December 2015.

Capital Punishment and Execution in the US Research Paper

Capital Punishment and Execution in the US - Research Paper Example The major methods of execution used in the past included the exposure of the defendant to a firing squad. There was also the use of gas chambers as well as hanging and electrocution (Weisenberg). Another method which was introduced later, and is mostly used today, is the use of lethal injection to poison the criminal. One of the most talked of execution is that of Pedro Medina in March 1997; one that most people have criticized and termed notorious (Gromer and Gromer). Initially adopted by 38 states, capital punishment has since been banned by law in 34 states. Some more states have put it on hold while a few still think that it should just be practiced extensively (CNN 1). Capital punishment has been an issue of social contention in the US, of late. Many Americans have maintained a support for it, particularly in murder cases. However, the support has been in the decline following strong criticism from some sectors of the American community. I concur with many that there is nothing good in taking someone’s life, and therefore, more humane ways need to be in place for carrying out the duty. I hereby beg to admit that, despite the cruelty in it, sometimes our emotions push us towards seeing the positive side of it. There has also been a widespread debate on whether or not the executions should be televised. My paper seeks to look at the pros and cons associated with both the idea of capital punishment and the television of the executions. It is a fact that many court TV and other television networks today attempt to cover proceedings on criminal cases. They also go as far as televising the cases to interested viewers from homes. Some media executives and lawyers have foreseen a possibility of a future broadcast of the executions too. They use the case of San Francisco’s KQED-TV as an indicator. This television station hit news headlines a few years ago when it asked for permission to record a murderer’s execution. The station intended to sho w the unedited tape of Robert Alton Harris’ execution, though late in the night when children had slept (Weisenberg). It is interesting to note that both proponents and opponents of capital punishment sometimes, ironically, find themselves as strange bedfellows whenever there is a debate on whether the executions should be broadcasted on TV or not. It is common to find a person who is against capital punishment yet they support the idea of televising the executions. Likewise, some proponents of the punishment also tend to strongly oppose the idea of televising the executions. For those who support capital punishment, televising executions will only serve to promote sympathy for the criminals. This sympathy may blind the general public to an extent that they may not realize the injury the criminal meted on their victim. The opponents of capital punishment, on the other hand, oppose the idea of television on grounds that it has the ability to reduce the death penalty to a few m inutes’ affair. This is so false because the pain covers even the time a criminal spends several sleepless nights in anticipation of the fateful day. Some people also think that showing the executions on TV may give a haunting picture to the viewers, especially the emotionally and psychologically unstable ones, including young children (Bender 1). Televising the executions may also make the execution seem, to many people, as a form of

Significance of International Trade to UK Businesses Assignment

Significance of International Trade to UK Businesses - Assignment Example According to the research findings acknowledging the significance of international trade UK is trying to simplify trade procedures, promoting best practices, removing trade barriers, and facilitating trade and entrepreneur in every possible manner. A dedicated department the Simpler Trade Promotion Board (SITPRO) is established to address related issues. Policies like Access to Finance are targeted to strengthen the local entrepreneurs’ financial standing in international markets. There are several positive and negative impacts associated with international trade. Entrepreneurs get the liberty of choosing cost effective resources from around the world. Specially, from the countries where cost of living is not as high as it is in the UK. This makes a lot of difference in the total operating cost of an enterprise. Stonehouse & David have discussed such an impact of international trade liberalization on UK job industry. Prudential, a renowned UK-based insurance giant saved  £16 million a year by switching their call centre to subcontinent. Beside low salaries, tax relaxations, huge subsidies and low oil prices are some other factors that may attract businesses in UK and entrepreneur may switch to cost effective markets. The overall impact of these factors may result in a shift of manufacturing units of large multinationals from developed countries to underdeveloped countries where they can operate at low costs and can find new markets for their products. Moreover, it may also result in shift of global imports and exports corridors. Great Britain is commonly perceived to be reluctant member of European Union in adopting joint policies. Social Chapter of 1992, which was adopted by UK in 1998, and common currency adoption are commonly referred to emphasize this perception. However, it implements more rigorously, what it accepts as common interest. (USITC, 2000). Britain joined European Free Trade Association (EFTA) 1960, European Economic Community in 1972 a nd EU in 1973. (Jones, 2004, p. 21). Since then EU, policies and community laws got precedence over local policies and regulations. This joint structuring of financial policies and regulations has been a great bearing on UK international trade. One simple example how EU policies can influence UK trade is that of EU free trade policy between member states. EU is operating on the basic principle of four freedoms, â€Å"free movement of goods, people, services and capital.†(Cullingworth & Vincent, 2003, p. 35). This means custom free trade between member states and a common external tariff for non-member states. The objective of these polices was to achieve a higher level of economic prosperity through elimination of trade barriers. (EUC, 2008, p. 9). Another example, where the impact of EU policies can be traced is the expansion of HSBC bank in member states. The HSBC is a large UK-based concern that is operating in several member states of EU. The

Humanism and the Renaissance Essay Example for Free

Humanism and the Renaissance Essay Founded on the ideals of Italian scholar and poet Francesco Petrarca during the late fourteenth century, Renaissance humanism centered itself on humanitys potential for achievement. Although God is credited for creating the universe, human beings are the ones credited for developing and sustaining it. The shift was away from understanding the world through faith and towards a broader intellectual and scientific understanding of it. A humanist, in this context, was simply a teacher whose curriculum focused on the liberal arts. By the mid-fifteenth century, this curriculum evolved to include rhetoric, grammar, poetry, history and moral philosophy (or ethics). Together these individual disciplines comprised the core of humanistic studies. But the ideas introduced were not altogether new. Humanists relied on primary sources such as the classical literature of Greece and Rome. What is remarkable, however, are the great lengths to which the movement sought to recover and reintroduce old ideas to the present times. It is remarkable when considering that after the fall of Rome in the fifth century much of the texts housing ideas central to humanistic thought were virtually lost or buried in obscurity. Ancient ideas within these classical texts were considered crucial because humanists considered the ancient world the pinnacle of human achievement and thought its human accomplishments should serve as the model for contemporary Europe. After the fall of Rome, human progress and achievement slowed to a trickle. Western civilization became mired in a period of cultural decline that the Renaissance mind considered a dark age in human history. The only way out was a return to the ideas propelling the ancient world forward. It was, in essence, a trip back to the future. Humanism profoundly affected the artistic community and how artists themselves were perceived. The medieval mind viewed artists as humble servants whose talent and ability were meant to honor God. This is evident in the work of medieval artists adorning churches and cathedrals. Renaissance artists, in contrast, were trained intellectuals well versed in the classics and mathematical principles. And the art that they created reflected this newfound perspective. The Renaissance also gave birth to a new class in the social order the merchant class which closely resembles what we now refer to as the middle class. And this merchant class had the means to commission an artists services. This dramatically expanded the sources of patronage (i. e. financial support) as well as the themes an artist could consider. No longer was patronage a luxury only the aristocracy could afford. And no longer were commissions relegated primarily to religious considerations. Enlightened citizens with the means to afford it considered artistic patronage an important activity. And with expanded participation, new kinds of art were introduced into the Renaissance landscape. Aristocratic patrons often commissioned portraits. But much of the art commissioned at the time was at the patronage of the merchant class. This art was primarily secular in nature including mythological subject matter and adorned the halls and rooms of town homes and country villas. Citizens such as Cosimo de Medici were civic minded and supported notable worthwhile causes. De Medici supported libraries, for example. He also had a fondness for the work of the artist Donatello and an interest in merging Platos ideals with Christian philosophy in an effort to demonstrate how lifes spiritual aspects can overcome physical limitations (leading to a revival of Neo-Platonism). Cosimos grandson Lorenzo the Magnificent was an avid art collector and benefactor to a young Michelangelo. This underscored the benefit of associating intellectual pursuits with the resources to pursue them. It cast a wide social net along with establishing a thriving market place for creativity. One work of art that embodies the ideal of the Early Italian Renaissance is Donatellos Penitent Magdalene. The work was commissioned between the late 1430s and 1450s. It is a life-size polychromed wood sculpture. The contrapposto positioning (one leg bearing weight with the other relaxed) is a reference to classic Greek style. The work presents Mary Magdalene as a sympathetic figure who has paid her dues in life. It is an emotionally moving piece. Once a prostitute, Mary evolved to become one of Jesus Christs most devout followers and trusted confidants. She was the first person to whom Jesus appeared after the Crucifixion. Afterwards, however, she lived her life in perpetual penance and self-imposed suffering to atone for the sins in life she committed. The sculpture presents Mary as old and frail with few hints of her long lost and forgotten beauty. What does remain to remind us that this was once a strong and beautiful presence to behold is a refined bone structure, the contrapposto pose and long hair. But the trembling hands raised as if in prayer and tattered dress convey that this woman has suffered long enough. She is deserving of forgiveness and compassion. This is the work of an artist well versed not only in the spiritual origin of this womans story, but our own sense of humanity and what we may aspire to.

How Music Has Influenced Me :: College Admissions Essays

Throughout my life, music has always been a major influence. It has the power to change my mood when I'm feeling down, but the thing I find most intriguing about music is that it doesn't always end up improving your mood: like all forms of art, it imitates life, which is not always portrayed in a positive light. The musicians that I admire most have the versatility to induce several different emotional responses in the same piece. This quality is present in most of the wide variety of music I listen to, from Russian composer Dmiti Shostakovich, to Chicago jazz band Tortoise, to California pop/rock sextet Mr. Bungle. Music is far more than the sum of its parts. It can be thought of in a highly mathematical sense, which leaves one in awe of the seemingly endless combinations of rhythm, tone and intervals that a good musician can produce. Admiring music in this way is a lot like admiring an intricate snowflake, or shapes in the clouds; it's beautiful, but at the same time very scientific, based on patterns. All of the aforementioned qualities of music have one thing in common: they can be defined with numeric, specific values. However, the greatest aspect of music lies elsewhere, and cannot be specifically defined with words. It is the reaction that each individual has when they are confronted with their favorite (or least favorite) kind of music. There aren't many words to describe the emotional reaction I get when I hear certain songs, even those that don't have the "complicatedness" of some of the more skillful artists.

Presentation of witches in Macbeth Essay

Macbeth is a play written by William Shakespeare in 1606 during the reign of King James I. This infernal play tells the story of a man who commits regicide in order to gain power himself. Not only does this drama deal with the age-old morality tale of good versus evil but it also deals with what is right and what is wrong. In this essay I will discuss and analyze Shakespeare’s presentation of the witches in Macbeth. At this time witchcraft was feared and it was seen as a real threat. The witches did not fear Christ and this meant they basically had no fear that was outside the moral, religious and social boundaries of 17th century Britain. Catholics in England were seen as outsiders, hated and seen as a threat, this was a lot like the position of witches. Witchcraft was also used as an excuse for bad happenings like natural disasters or deaths. It was usually old women who lived on their own who got accused of being a witch. Many believed accusing these single women was a way of discouraging women from living alone outside the authority of a male-dominated household. Men wanted masculine superiority to remain unchecked. In a way men were scene as good and women were scene as evil. If these women accused of being witches were found guilty they would be tortured into a confession and then murdered. King James I was just one of the people who had strong feelings on witchcraft during this era. He believed that once he was nearly killed by the evils of witchcraft. The original play featured nymphs but Shakespeare changed it and included witches to not only impress and interest King James I but also to warn him of the danger of these evil witches. Involving witches also includes fears of that time and would frighten the audience more than nymphs. Introducing witches also gives the play an excuse for more dramatic stage play and more shocking scenes and was a necessity in the attempt to hasten the plot of Macbeth. The witches feature at the very beginning of Macbeth in Act One, Scene One. They enter to the elements of thunder and lightning in a deserted place that has a significant meaning. The thunder and lightning puts the main focus on the entrance of these witches. This dramatic scene suggests evil and highlights the threat of these witches. They enter from a deserted place that highlights their isolation and avoids distraction to the entrance of these witches. They then talk of what the future holds showing their gift of foresight that is supernatural and against Christian believing. This is an example of the witches going against the beliefs of 17th century Britain that is shown almost straight away. There is also a mention of â€Å"Greymalkin† and â€Å"Paddock† which are the witches’ familiars and part of the criteria of being a witch was having a familiar that confirms the strange sisters are witches. The scene ends, â€Å"Fair is foul, and foul is fair: Hover th rough the fog and filthy air.† All three of the witches say this together like a spell would be said. Here the witches heighten the sense of mystery in the play by confusing the audience by dealing with opposites. This rounds off the spooky scene with a dramatic ending. In Act One, Scene Three the witches also enter to thunder as they meet again as planned. It is not as dramatic and there is no lightning but evil and fear is still present. One of the witches talks about getting revenge on a sailor by killing him. King James I believed the witches attempted to kill him with makes it relevant to the King. Macbeth and Banquo are introduced in this scene. Macbeth comments on the day by saying â€Å"so fair and foul a day I have not seen.† Then Banquo notices the â€Å"so withered, and so wild in their attire† witches with beards and is utterly shocked. Macbeth then asks them â€Å"What are you?† and he is also horrified. The witches then together say a verse hailing Macbeth, flattering him sarcastically. The witches talk in riddles and say make some confusing comments like, â€Å"Less than Macbeth, and greater. Not so happy, yet much happier.† The characters of the witches are still quite mysterious but in this scene they have shown some emotions that support the view that they are evil, as they involve murdering and other terrible things. In Act Four, Scene One the witches once again enter to the thunder that suggests evil is coming and they then begin casting an evil spell. They put lots of different things in a cauldron and chant together, â€Å"Double, double toil and trouble, fire burn, and cauldron bubble.† Saying the verse together creates an aural effect that would scare the audience. A â€Å"scale of a dragon† and a â€Å"tooth of a wolf† are just a couple of things that go into this cauldron of evil. When they have their potion ready they â€Å"cool it with a baboons blood.† This is imagery of blood and it has a sickening and shocking effect. Throughout the play the impact of the witches is developed and strengthened by the reactions of the other characters. The witches have a major impact on Macbeth and he believes what they are saying. This makes us ask the question of whether Macbeth is under a spell of the witches making or whether he is acting under his own free will. The witches do not harm Macbeth therefore he is an agent of God, but he does destroy himself. That corresponds with the Christian notion of made in God’s image but with the power of free will. The witches use the weakness of Macbeth to their advantage and to show they can have control over people but they cannot move Banquo to the dark side. Banquo is stronger then Macbeth and does not just believe whatever the witches say. He doubts the reality of his senses and is skeptical. The witches use language in this play to get across their point in a strong way. They use plenty of repetition. â€Å"I’ll do, I’ll do, I’ll do† they repeat three times and three is widely seen as the magic number. They also use a lot of imagery in the play. For example they put in the cauldron, â€Å"A finger of birth-strangled babe† which makes you think of innocence and the witches are creating drama by including something harmless and loved. The witches’ dramatic rituals reinforce their sisterhood as they speak together and work together. They are completely original and together they are isolated from the rest of society but they have each other. The rhyming couplets help make the chant more flowing. The witches also say, â€Å"I’ll give thee a wind.† This suggests the witches can control the weather and the natural environment. The witches in these plays are warning King James I that witches can manipulate people to kill the King even though he is saw as untouchable. Shakespeare allows the audience to see that the witches do have this influence and they can cause evil through other people with Macbeth being an example. The witches tie in with the established idea that women could be harmful to men at this time as they have the power of manipulation. I think the witches work very well in Macbeth. They create fear and drama throughout the play. They can be linked with terrorists in our society today. Terrorists are now feared and they have the power to get their own way because of their evil to a certain extent. Women were seen as a threat in the 17th century as witches were usually women now Muslims are scene as a threat as a lot of terrorists are Muslims.

Music Masters and Rhythm Kings Essay

It is a rare opportunity to witness masters of the old tradition relishing in their element: sweat on their foreheads as beats and strings pulsate the story of a past almost forgotten. It is a gift if one is fortunate enough to see them live, but seeing them and hearing their music on the limited capacity of film is still a treasure, much like watching some of the best keepers of old time Southern music in Peggy Bulger and Melissa Shepard Sykes’ film Music Masters and Rhythm Kings. We review musicians Eddie Kirkland, Neal Pattman, Homer â€Å"Pappy† Sherill and the Hired Hands, and Florencio Baro as they recount the origins of their music and how they have come to imbibe it. Southern music is essentially an amalgam of two musical cultures combined despite a clash of ideals and beliefs, and despite centuries of oppression and dispute. As Charles Joyner, a Southern Culture historian mentions in the film, it is impossible for the Southern peoples not to be influenced by the culture of another race, especially if they are so ingrained in their society. Though these people might argue against these relations, there is no denying the immense influence of African culture in the language, the mannerisms, and especially, the music of the South. History dictates that traditional South American music finds its roots in the harsh working fields. Pappy Sherill phrases this perfectly when he says that these farmers do â€Å"as a way of putting joy to themselves [sic] while they’re working. † At the same time, Southern music also represented the subversive culture of the African slaves. Their music became their way of expression because they knew that the â€Å"white man can have no control†. Bringing their own kind of musical tradition from their homeland, they created a new one that came to represent and signal the changing dynamics of the American South. In the film, we see Pappy Sherill and the Hired Hands, one of the few old-time string bands that play actively in the South. Their music embodies the respite that Southern farmers crave after a day of toiling under the hot sun. It is a fast-paced jig that consists of music from a fiddle, a guitar, a banjo, and a cello, all coming together in an energetic symphony of strings. Pulling it all together is Sherill, who at a very ripe age still remains as one of the best fiddle players in the country. Folklorist Glenn Hinson defines his playing as propelled by advanced technique that harkens back to the days when fiddlers made their instruments cry and sing. Playing professionally since he was thirteen years old, Sherill was a prodigy who created music despite financial setbacks. He only owned a proper wooden fiddle when he managed to save money from a side job, and only after using a tin fiddle for some time. In 1976, Sherill won the award for Best Old-Time Fiddler in the National Fiddlers Championship, opening doors for him to play in many road show and concerts. But, when Pappy sang and played out of joy, Eddie Kirkland and Neal Pattman sang the sonorous, highly emotional tunes of the blues. Eddie Kirkland grew up harvesting cotton, and during the production of the film had once again stepped foot in the cotton fields. Drawing back to memories of those hardships, Eddie remembers doing this grinding, back-breaking work as a child. It was only the â€Å"field hollers, work songs†¦ and spirituals† of the African-American people that pushed them to go on. Arising from this work songs were the Blues, a uniquely Southern music that Kirkland loves so dear. As we can hear from the film, Kirkland’s music is derived from years of toil and work, echoing a time of inequality and hardship. He describes it as â€Å"heart-wrenching Blues. † And so it is, with the soft, poignant, yet irregular riffs of his guitar accompanied by his soulful voice, we feel sadness and desperation. But, he goes beyond this by also singing songs of love following the Blues format. It is a rare opportunity to hear the Blues as it could’ve been played at the beginning of the 19th century, in the backwaters of the rural South. Also reminiscent of Kirkland is Neal Pattman, a maestro of the blues harp, who also rose from the working fields. His music, as any Blues music would be, touches the heart and with his harp he creates an even more wrenching elegy. We follow the flow of his music as it rises and stops, as he accompanies it with his voice. We listen and we are transplanted back into the days of old when the whiteness of the cotton fields is an unwanted sight. Hailing from further South is Cuban musician Florencio Baro. A singer and percussionist, his music remains a pure representation of his African heritage. His songs are sung in his ancestors’ native African language that as a child he has learned to understand and to appreciate. Much like South American music, his music as a combination of two cultures brought together despite odds. Historically, his music arises from the spiritual cult of Santoria, a religion established by African slaves brought to Cuba. What started out as spiritual hymns as a way to once again reconnect with their distant land, is now heard as Afro-Cuban music. It is played with an energetic combination of African percussions and Cuban guitars. In Baro’s hands, the music achieves a life of its own. The beats throb as Baro’s voice sing of the woes of the African slave, weaving itself in and out of the notes, all in a way that is dramatically hypnotic. And entranced the audience were as they glimpse at this fragment of the past that, unfortunately, seldom reaches the majority’s ears. These men represent a bygone era of music that is formed when culture clash and are forced to combine. But, in retrospect, what we are singing of now and what our music is today, all boils down to the undying pursuit of expression that these men have achieved.

Free Essays on Planet Comparison- Uranus And Neptune

Planet Comparison Report Uranus: Uranus was discovered in 1781 by Sir William Herschel. He at first wanted to name the planet Sidus Georgium which is latin for George’s star after the king of England. Another astronomer Johann Bode advised Herschel against it and suggested instead that he use a name from Greco-Roman mythology like all other planets. So Uranus was given its name which is the father of Saturn. Uranus is one of the Jovian planets and like the others it has a short rotation period. Uranus’s day is 17.2 hours. Its revolution around the sun however is slightly more than 84 years. It is the seventh planet from the sun at a distance of 1.78 billion miles. Uranus is about 4 times the diameter of earth at 46,700km. Its mass is 15 times that of earth at 8.68*10 kg. The axial tilt of this planet is one of the most unusual things about it. It is tilted 98 degrees which classifies it as being in retrograde rotation. Uranus is also unique because it has the most inclined magnetic field. The surface magnetic field is 74 percent that of the earth. The surface gravity on Uranus is 8.87 m/s ². The atmosphere of Uranus is thick with a lot of hydrogen, helium, and methane. It has a very low density, the mean density is 1271 kg/m ³. Uranus lacks any really significant internal heat source and it mean surface temperature is 58 ° K. To date Uranus has been found to have 21 satellites four of which have yet to be named and 11 rings. News Articles: From: Regulatory Intelligence Data. Title: Release 99-47 Huge Spring Storms Rouse Uranus From Winter Hibernation Date: 03/29/99 NASA’s Hubble Space telescope showed that for the first time seasonal changes on Uranus. From: ScienceNOW Title: New moon for Uranus Date: 05/19/99 A new moon was discovered for Uranus that had previously been overlooked for 13 years. As of 1999 this discovery brought the total of Uranus’s satellites to 18. Neptu... Free Essays on Planet Comparison- Uranus And Neptune Free Essays on Planet Comparison- Uranus And Neptune Planet Comparison Report Uranus: Uranus was discovered in 1781 by Sir William Herschel. He at first wanted to name the planet Sidus Georgium which is latin for George’s star after the king of England. Another astronomer Johann Bode advised Herschel against it and suggested instead that he use a name from Greco-Roman mythology like all other planets. So Uranus was given its name which is the father of Saturn. Uranus is one of the Jovian planets and like the others it has a short rotation period. Uranus’s day is 17.2 hours. Its revolution around the sun however is slightly more than 84 years. It is the seventh planet from the sun at a distance of 1.78 billion miles. Uranus is about 4 times the diameter of earth at 46,700km. Its mass is 15 times that of earth at 8.68*10 kg. The axial tilt of this planet is one of the most unusual things about it. It is tilted 98 degrees which classifies it as being in retrograde rotation. Uranus is also unique because it has the most inclined magnetic field. The surface magnetic field is 74 percent that of the earth. The surface gravity on Uranus is 8.87 m/s ². The atmosphere of Uranus is thick with a lot of hydrogen, helium, and methane. It has a very low density, the mean density is 1271 kg/m ³. Uranus lacks any really significant internal heat source and it mean surface temperature is 58 ° K. To date Uranus has been found to have 21 satellites four of which have yet to be named and 11 rings. News Articles: From: Regulatory Intelligence Data. Title: Release 99-47 Huge Spring Storms Rouse Uranus From Winter Hibernation Date: 03/29/99 NASA’s Hubble Space telescope showed that for the first time seasonal changes on Uranus. From: ScienceNOW Title: New moon for Uranus Date: 05/19/99 A new moon was discovered for Uranus that had previously been overlooked for 13 years. As of 1999 this discovery brought the total of Uranus’s satellites to 18. Neptu...

Biography of Artist Henry Ossawa Tanner

Biography of Artist Henry Ossawa Tanner Born June 21, 1859, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Henry Ossawa Tanner is Americas best known and most popular  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Ã¢â‚¬â€¹African American artist born in the nineteenth century. His painting The Banjo Lesson (1893, Hampton University Museum, Hampton, Virginia), hangs in many classrooms and doctors offices across the nation, familiar and yet not fully understood. Few Americans know the artists name, and fewer still learn about his outstanding accomplishments that often broke through racist barriers. Early Life Tanner was born into a religious and well-educated household. His father, Benjamin Tucker Tanner, graduated from college and became a minister (and later bishop) in the African Methodist Episcopalian Church. His mother, Sarah Miller Tanner, was sent north by her mother through the Underground Railroad to escape the slavery she was born into. (The name Ossawa is based on the abolitionist John Browns nickname Osawatomie Brown, in honor of the Battle of Osawatomie, Kansas in 1856. John Brown was convicted of treason and hanged on December 2, 1859.) The Tanner family moved frequently until they settled in Philadelphia in 1864. Benjamin Tanner hoped his son would follow him into the ministry, but Henry had other ideas by the time he was thirteen. Smitten with art, the young Tanner drew, painted and visited Philadelphia exhibitions as often as possible. A short apprenticeship in a flour mill, which compromised Henry Tanners already frail health, convinced Reverend Tanner that his son should choose his own vocation. Training In 1880, Henry Ossawa Tanner enrolled in the  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, becoming Thomas Eakins (1844-1916) first African American student. Eakins 1900 portrait of Tanner may reflect the close relationship they developed. Certainly, Eakins Realist training, which demanded meticulous analysis of human anatomy, can be detected in Tanners early works such as The Banjo Lesson and The Thankful Poor (1894, William H. and Camille O. Cosby Collection). In 1888, Tanner moved to Atlanta, Georgia and set up a studio to sell his paintings, photographs and art lessons. Bishop Joseph Crane Hartzell and his wife became Tanners principal patrons and ended up purchasing all his paintings in an 1891 studio exhibition. The income allowed Tanner to head for Europe to further his art education. He traveled to London and Rome and then settled in Paris to study with Jean-Paul Laurens (1838-1921) and Jean Joseph Benjamin Constant (1845-1902) at the Acadà ©mie Julien. Tanner returned to Philadelphia in 1893 and encountered racial prejudice that sent him back to Paris by 1894. The Banjo Lesson, completed during that short period in America, drew from the poem The Banjo Song, published in Paul Lawrence Dunbars (1872-1906) collection Oak and Ivy around 1892-93. Career Back in Paris, Tanner began to exhibit at the annual Salon, winning an honorable mention for Daniel in the Lions Den in 1896 and The Raising of Lazarus in 1897. These two works reflect the predominance of biblical themes in Tanners later work and his stylistic shift to a dreamy, iridescent glow throughout his images. In Birthplace of Joan of Arc at Domrà ©my-la-Pucelle (1918), we can see his impressionistic handling of the sunlight on the facade. Tanner married the American opera singer Jessie Olsson in 1899, and their son Jesse Ossawa Tanner was born in 1903. In 1908, Tanner exhibited his religious paintings in a solo show at the American Art Galleries in New York. In 1923, he became an honorary chevalier of the Order of the Legion of Honor, Frances highest award of recognition. In 1927, he became the first African American full academician elected into the National Academy of Design in New York. Tanner died at home on May 25, 1937, most likely in Paris, though some sources claim that he died in his country home in Etaples, Normandy. In 1995, Tanners early landscape Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City, ca. 1885, became the first work by an African American artist acquired by the White House. This was during the Clinton Administration.   Important Works Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City, ca. 1885, White House, Washington, D.C.The Banjo Lesson, 1893, Hampton University Museum, Hampton, VirginiaThe Thankful Poor, 1894, William H. and Camille O. Cosby CollectionDaniel in the Lions Den, 1896, Los Angeles County Museum of ArtThe Raising of Lazarus, 1897, Musà ©e dOrsay, Paris Sources: Tanner, Henry Ossawa. The Story of An Artists Life, pp. 11770-11775.Page, Walter Hines and Arthur Wilson Page (eds.). The Worlds work, Volume 18.New York: Doubleday, Page Co., 1909 Driskell, David C. Two Hundred Years of African American Art.Los Angeles and New York: Los Angeles County Museum and Alfred A. Knopf, 1976 Mathews, Marcia M. Henry Ossawa Tanner: American Artist.Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969 and 1995 Bruce, Marcus. Henry Ossawa Tanner: A Spiritual Biography.New York: Crossroad Publishing, 2002 Sims, Lowery Stokes. African American Art: 200 Years.New York: Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, 2008

Global Warming speech by Marcus Gibson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Global Warming speech by Marcus Gibson - Essay Example The speech has been delivered where it tends to be more convenient to pass the message and the audience is encouraging.Furthermore, it encourages everyone to be walking shorter distances rather than using vehicles which pollute the environment. The speech has not ignored the negative challenges but has acknowledged all the aspects. It has tried to lead the audience in understanding the speech being delivered. Compelling the audience in practicing the safety measures against preventing global warming has been emphasized. This is by encouraging them to do the very simple thing like walking for short distances rather than using their vehicles. Furthermore, the speech is more obliged and focuses on achieving the best from the audience. On delivering the speech, the person engaged the audience by using eye contact and movements. This is with the fact that they the audience may provide visual support and encouragement during the delivery of the speech as they are considered to be the focal point. In addition, the speech on Global warming has been delivered in the manner that at that time every person has been willing to fight and prevent it. The writer focused on using rhetoric questions in delivering the speech. For instance, â€Å"If we don’t prevent global warming by ourselves, who will?†This made the audience to be livelier and contribute by providing good listening skills. Moreover, the speech being delivered focused on the key issues making it be precise thus delivering the intended message to the audience. The persuasive attempt in delivering the speech was more effective.

Education System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Education System - Essay Example The Equal Status Act, 2000 is guided by the principle of equal rights and participation among community members (Houses of the Oireachtus, 2006). The Act includes access to service, facilities and amenities across ethnicity, age, gender, religious beliefs, sexual orientation, political affiliation or physical and mental ability, or membership of a traveller community. However, there is a distinct lack of empirical evaluation of actual classroom practices of equality as provided by teachers and schools (Breen, 1998; Breen & Jonsson, 2005). Issues of exclusion within the education system reflect concerns for the learning attainments of groups that are differentiated by language, religion, ideology or culture, socio-economic status or who are political or economic immigrants. Socio-economic and political infrastructure within the Republic aims to cultivate within students a sense of "inclusive identity", which requires classroom practices that respect different traditions across community aggregates, and that encourage tolerance, acceptance and respect for social differences (Center for the Study of conflict [CAINS], 1996). Inclusive education requires that all students are recognised as part of both the school and wider community, regardless of the students learning strengths and weaknesses (Hanafin & Lynch, 2002). The principles of inclusive education contributed to the development of a national education program, Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS) (Department of Education & Science, 2006). However, literature reviewing the effectiveness of the program is lacking.This research proposal aims to evaluate current classroom practices of equality and inclusiveness with regard to socio-economic status amongst secondary students in the Republic. A pre-post research design will be used, incorporating a mixed method of student surveys and end of term grades. The final thesis will be divided in to five chapters; 1) An Introduction to the topic; 2) A Literature Review of relevant empirical studies to identify the present state of research, to identify gaps so as to develop the research hypotheses; 3) A Method section to outline the school's characteristics, participant demographics, selection criteria and the obtaining of informed consent, as well as detailing the research design, materials to be used, and the procedure of the study; 4) The Results section will provide the findings of analyses and include tables and graphs as appropriate; and 5) A Discussion section, which will identify i f the hypotheses were supported or not whilst linking findings to current discourse as presented in the Literature Review. The limitations of the study will also be delineated, and recommendations for future empirical research shall be made.It is anticipated that this research project will positively contribute to the development of chaplaincy programs that will support equality of access to education, and enhance inclusiveness within schools of the Republic. References Breen, R. (1998). The persistence of class origin inequalities among school leavers in the Republic of Ireland,

Recalling the Holocaust Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Recalling the Holocaust - Essay Example The Nazis committed mass murder of the Jews in gas chambers. The use of gas chambers was one of the Nazi’s plans to eliminate all Jews from the German society. The killing of infants occurred before their birth. The gas chambers used carbon monoxide as the killer gas during the Holocaust. The use of carbon monoxide was an inhumane act. It allowed for the mass murder of the Jews by the Nazis. The first mass killing using gas chambers was in 1939. The killing that occurred at Owinksi hospital led to the death of over one thousand Jews including children. That the concentration camps, the use free standing chimneys to kill Jews presented one of the most atrocious acts. A high number of prisoners suffered their fatal fate because of the brutal killing using the freestanding chimneys in the camps. It remains one of the extreme violations of the rights of humanity. Phil Donahue’s interview is a revelation of the truth behind the inhumane acts that surrounded the Holocaust. It exposes the high number of Jews who suffered the atrocities experienced in the important event, that it, the Holocaust. The attempts by supporters of the Holocaust to deny the use of gas chambers to kill the Jews are unbelievable and tantamount to the denial of committing a crime. Dr. Franciszek is one of the most informed people on the holocaust incidence. Dr. Francisze's claims that the number of victims was less than that originally estimated seems ill-intentioned and driven by impunity.... The use of gas chambers was one of the Nazi’s plans to eliminate all Jews from the German society. The killing of infants occurred before their birth. The gas chambers used carbon monoxide as the killer gas during the holocaust. The use of carbon monoxide was an inhumane act. It allowed for mass murder of the Jews by the Nazis. The first mass killing using gas chambers was in 1939. The killing that occurred at Owinksi hospital led to the death of over one thousand Jews including children. That the concentration camps, the use free standing chimneys to kill Jews presented one of the most atrocious acts. A high number of prisoners suffered their fatal fate because of the brutal killing using the freestanding chimneys in the camps. It remains one of the extreme violations of the rights of humanity. The burning of children in the chimneys alive was another great desecration of human rights to life. Phil Donahue’s interview is a revelation of the truth behind the inhumane ac ts that surrounded the holocaust. It exposes the high number of Jews who suffered the atrocities experienced in the important event, that it, the holocaust. The attempts by supporters of the holocaust to deny the use of gas chambers to kill the Jews are unbelievable and tantamount to denial of committing a crime. Dr. Franciszek is one of the most informed people on the holocaust incidence. Dr. Francisze's claims that the number of victims were less than that originally estimated seems ill intentioned and driven by impunity. The interview articulates the true occurrences during the time when Jews underwent inhumane at the Aushwitz concentration chamber. The perception created by denial of the use of the gas chambers to kill in the camps contradicts

Housing, Economic Growth and Poverty: A Literature Review

Housing, Economic Growth and Poverty: A Literature Review Abstract This paper reviews literature on the relationship between housing finance, economic growth and poverty.   While it is evident that housing construction creates jobs, the review reveals that there is a need for more research to determine the long-term economic benefits of housing and whether housing finance in particular can be an effective tool in eradicating poverty.   The limited evidence is due in part to limits in data and the need to utilize robust econometric techniques to determine the direction of causality in these relationships (i.e. does increased economic growth lead to increased demand for housing and hence housing construction and finance or does housing construction and finance lead to increased economic growth and lower poverty).   Though little direct evidence was found, the financial deepening literature suggests that as housing finance deepens financial markets, it may play a role in poverty alleviation.   This relationship should be investigated further. 1. Introduction While the focus of this review is to summarize empirical evidence regarding the relationship between housing, economic growth and poverty, there is considerable stylized and anecdotal evidence that makes a case for housing as a prescription for poverty.   This literature is extensive although recent books on eradicating poverty in the developing world say very little explicitly about the role of housing.   The End of Poverty by Jeffrey Sachs (2011), states that most would accept that fact that schools, clinics, roads, electricity, ports, soil nutrients, clean drinking water; and the like are the basic necessities for a life of dignity and health, as well as for economic productivity.   Sachs goes on to delineate the strategy for ending extreme poverty by 2025.   While he mentions key investments in people and in infrastructure, he does not explicitly mention housing.   The same can be said of Banerjee and Duflo (2011) and Karlan and Appel (2011).   Perhaps there is an und erlying assumption that housing is necessary.   Perhaps, housing is considered part of the infrastructure that they refer to. Or, perhaps the underlying belief is that economic growth will lead to better housing conditions. At any rate, a specific consideration of the impact of housing on poverty is not given in these recent books on the subject of eradicating poverty in this millennium.   This is representative of what was discovered upon reviewing the empirical literature on this issue. Some authors assert that housing loans and finance are needed but do not provide economic analysis to back this claim.   For example, Bunnarith (2004) in discussing national housing policy in Cambodia asserts that â€Å"housing is needed so that people can have a safe and secure environment.†Ã‚   There is no discussion in his policy paper of the true economic impact of housing construction or finance on economic growth or poverty reduction.   Similarly, Habitat for Humanity specifically acknowledges that housing is necessary to eradicate poverty.   In ‘Consequences of Poverty Housing,’ Habitat for Humanity asserts that the lack of suitable housing creates disadvantages at many levels.   It is seen as interfering with a household’s ability to break out of poverty because so much of the household’s time and money is spent on house maintenance and repairs and not on food, health, education and income generation.   Due to a lack of suitable housing, there is less efficiency arising from illnesses, inability to educate children and an inability to provide a safe and secure environment for economic endeavors.   These are testable implications but little has been done to document these losses empirically, likely due to data limitations.   Some evidence is found and listed in the education section. While there is quite a bit of literature on the interactions between GDP and housing investment, there is surprisingly little evidence documenting the relationship between housing, economic growth and poverty.   One reason for the limited evidence is limitations in quantity of data in developing countries, especially the poorest ones, Hull (2009).   A second reason for the limited evidence is that it is difficult to determine the direction of causality between economic growth and housing.   Ã‚  There is a need to use general equilibrium models which are not easily tested with the available data in the developing countries.   Data limitations are particularly severe when trying to test these relationships in the poorest of the developing countries.   Finally, macroeconomics and housing finance were not studied in depth in economic literature prior to the 1980s, even for the U.S.   Ã‚  When studies were done they typically looked at housing demand as a function of income and growth not the impact of housing on economic growth, see Leung (2004).   Even if where there is analysis of housing finance in developed countries, it may be difficult to make direct inferences about relationships between housing and economic growth in developing countries using those results because so many other factors are at work including financial sector development, government involvement and types of housing. With these limitations in mind, there is some information that may be useful in analyzing the impact of housing finance on economic growth, job creation and poverty.   The impact of housing on economic growth, in developed and some developing markets is highlighted in the next section.   Next, there is a review of the impact of housing on job growth.   The third section reviews what is known about the impact of housing and housing finance on job creation.   Section four reviews the impact of housing finance on poverty.   Some inferences in that section are based on studies of financial market development on poverty.   Section five examines potential social and revenue consequences of housing.   Finally there is a summary of findings in section six. 2. Housing and Economic Impact Housing and Economic Growth: Hongyu, Park and Siqi (2002) recognize the causality dilemma when studying housing investment and economic growth.   They use Granger causality tests to study the case of China from 1981 – 2000.   This study does not address the poverty impact it just studies housing and economic growth.   The authors find that compared to non-housing investment, housing investment has a stronger short-run effect on economic growth.   They also find that housing investment has a long run impact on economic growth but not on non-housing investment.   On the other hand, economic growth has a long run impact on both housing and non-housing investment.   These findings suggest that housing is important in explaining only short-term economic cycles in economic growth. Chen and Zhu (2008) also study the long- and short- run relationship between housing investment and economic growth in China.   The authors look at panel data from 1999 through 2007.   They use robust econometric tests to examine Granger causality of the relationship and find that the relationship is bidirectional in both short – and long- run.   In other words, in China during this period, housing investment impacted economic growth and vice versa.   It will be interesting to see if this result holds over a longer period where more economic cycles are included in the data.   Interestingly, the relationship is different depending on which provinces are analyzed.   The eastern provinces show bidirectional causality like the overall results but results for other provinces indicate that GDP granger causes housing investment but not vice versa. In addition to the empirical analysis of the relationship between housing and economic growth, there are some estimates of multiplier effects associated with construction in developing countries.   For example, Uy (2006) cites that for every 1 peso spent on housing activities in the Philippines, an additional 16.61 pesos is contributed to the GDP.   In Argentina, Freire, et. al (2006) estimate that a 1,000,000 peso investment in construction leads to 1.8 times that amount in demand.   In 1995, a United Nations study indicated that in most developing countries construction of low- income housing is labor intensive and therefore housing construction has a high multiplier effect of between 2 and 3 times the initial investment.   This arises due to the large infrastructure investment (roads, utilities, water, etc.) required in housing development in those countries.   .   In comparison, The National Association of Realtor’s model suggests that the multiplier for home sales in the U.S. is between 1.34 and 1.62. Erbas and Nothaft (2002) study a sample of MENA (Middle Eastern and North African) countries.   Using parameters from the U.S. they simulate the impact that improved home mortgage availability would have on housing markets and economic growth in these countries.   They find that mortgage market reforms would increase housing units built by 10% with a 600 basis point decline in mortgage interest rates.   The impact that the increased mortgage accessibility and housing would have on economic growth is not significant however.   That is because they find, like other studies, that increased investment in housing â€Å"crowds out† investment in other sectors.   The impact on overall growth will be greater if this housing finance helps to improve small business credit. Housing Finance and Affordability Dübel (2007) proposes a model where housing prices are determined by rents, R, growth, g, and the opportunity cost of capital, k, where P = R/(k g).   The role of housing finance in this model is to reduce the cost of capital.   As that cost is lowered, housing prices fall and affordability of housing increases. Housing and Savings Buckley (1996) cites several reasons that mortgage market development can improve household savings.   First, the return to housing will likely provide positive returns especially in light of rapid urbanization in developing countries.   Second, housing provides the most secure collateral against market fluctuations and a positive yield over the long-run.   Third, housing prices are less volatile than other asset prices.   Fourth, the availability of housing improves labor mobility and therefore employment potential.   Finally, the availability of affordable housing finance may lead to increased savings as potential homeowners save to make the required down payment and to maintain their asset.   While many of the work in this area suggests that there should be benefits to overall savings and investment arising from increased access to affordable housing, the literature does not appear to have documented these benefits empirically.   This is an area rich for further exploration. 3. Housing and Job Creation The Case of the United States Wardrip, Williams and Hague (2011) review the literature on the role of affordable housing in particular, in creating jobs and stimulating local economic development in the U.S.   They find that the development of affordable housing increases spending and employment in the surrounding economy.   There are several models used in the housing literature that use â€Å"inputs† such as information on the purchase and production of goods and services for hundreds of U.S. industry sectors, the type and number of businesses in a given community, and a measure of the spending associated with a given program.   Given these inputs, the models â€Å"output† the level of economic activity expected for a given level of housing investment.   For example, the National Association of Home Builders uses a proprietary model to estimate the impact of building 100 new low-income housing tax credit developments for families.   The model predicts that the investment will, on average, lead to the creation of 80 new jobs from the direct and indirect effects of construction and 42 jobs supported by the induced effects of increased spending.   In the long-term, building these units also leads to 30 new jobs that support on-going consumer activity of the new residents.   Market-rate apartment housing will create a similar amount of jobs with just a couple of additional jobs (32) supported by households occupying the new homes.   Of course the models are dependent on the productivity of investment within the community and would likely look very different across countries being considered.   It will depend significantly on the amount of skilled labor available for the construction work since 70% of the jobs created as a direct or indirect result of the new construction, are in fact construction jobs. Rural vs. Urban In support of the findings above, in considering the impact of housing development on a rural community’s economy, the Housing Assistance Council states that housing construction and rehabilitation have a high ratio (62.3%) of value-added to gross outlays.   This means that a large percentage of the outlay for housing construction is available to create wages and salaries, and stimulate job growth in rural economies in the U.S.   The document does not compare the ratio for rural communities with that in urban communities.   This is an important distinction since most of the growth in developing countries centers around urban areas.  Ã‚   Quigley (2008) suggests that results on the relationships between investment and economic growth may be dependent on whether that investment is rural or urban.   The author finds that urbanization promotes productivity due to increases in specialization, centralization of knowledge, complementarities in production and economies of scale and scope.   If this is true, an investment in an urban center may produce greater economic growth than that same investment in a rural area.   This will be an important factor in directing housing policy and finance. Housing and Jobs in Emerging Markets In emerging markets there is some data on job creation as well as the previously cited multiplier effects associated with construction.   For example, in Argentina, Freire, Hassler, et. al (2006) estimate that a 1,000,000 peso investment in construction creates some 40 jobs directly and 20 jobs indirectly from services and related industries.   Tipple (1994) cites numerous studies that find multiplier effects from housing investment.   For example, the National Building Organization in India estimates that a $1,000,000 investment in building construction leads to 600 on-site jobs and 1,000 indirect jobs.   The construction process may stimulate economic growth through backward linkages (e.g. processing building materials) and forward linkages during and after the construction process (e.g. restaurants, repair shops and small scale manufacturing).   However, according to Erbas and Nothaft (2002), housing construction in some developing countries is actually quite capital intensive and reliant on imported materials; as a result only a small percentage of the labor force of these developing countries is employed in construction.   In addition to the construction related jobs, Dübel (2007) finds a positive correlation between financial and real estate related services and the housing to GDP ratio.   Specifically, during the property market upturn in Hong Kong in the 1980s and early 1990s, a doubling of the housing market share of GDP led the share of financial, insurance, real estate and business services to triple from 6.5% to 16.3% of GDP.   Other service sectors, including community, social and personal services also grew, likely as a result of indirect inputs to construction activity as well as increased tax revenues.   4. Housing and Its Impact on Poverty The literature on the relationship between housing and poverty is much smaller than that on housing and economic growth.   Hull (2009) notes there are significant data limitations especially on headcount poverty and labor market outcomes.   These data limitations make testing difficult.   There is a particular need for data in sub-Saharan Africa.   Some findings can be noted and they suggest that all housing investment is not created equal when it comes to addressing poverty.   Some of these studies are highlighted here. Gutierrez et al. (2007) find strong evidence that the sectoral pattern of growth and its employment and productivity-intensities matter for poverty reduction. While employment-intensive growth in the secondary sector (manufacturing, construction, mining and utilities) is correlated with poverty reduction, employment-intensive growth in agriculture is correlated with increases in the poverty headcount.   By extension, if housing creates growth in manufacturing, construction, mining and utilities, it may be effective in reducing poverty.   Similarly, Hull (2009) finds the construction sector is relatively productive but not in all countries.   That is, construction reduces measures of poverty in some but not all countries. Erbas and Nothaft (2002) find that low income housing has a lower import component in production and also higher labor intensity.   This implies that construction of low income housing will lead to greater employment and growth than the construction of middle or high income housing.   Construction of low income housing can effectively improve the living standards of the poorer segments of the population in two ways – by creation of jobs and by creation of suitable housing. Tipple (1994) reviews the literature on the links between employment and housing development and shows that investment in shelter is very effective for promoting employment, especially among lower-income groups; some of the benefits to the economy tend to be inversely proportional to housing cost meaning that low cost housing is more beneficial to the economy.   The informal sector and small-scale enterprises tend to outperform the formal sector and larger enterprises. Housing Policy and Poverty in Developing Countries As housing finance policy is considered, the housing programs and policies of local governments must be accounted for in order to assess the potential effectiveness of housing finance in different countries.   For example, Malpezzi and Sa-Aadu (1996) review contemporary African housing markets and policies.   They find that resource allocation in these countries was quite different than their intended objectives.   These policies have discouraged housing investment and have been both inequitable and distortional.   The authors suggest that privatization of housing investment is more efficient and the African governments need to â€Å"disengage.†Ã‚   Taking the example of the U.S., direct government housing production has been less efficient than private sector tax incentives in developing affordable housing [see Erbas and Nothaft (2002)]. Researchers and policymakers have noted that the housing finance systems in some countries have not been effective in reaching the low income segments of the population.   For example, Moss (2004) states that in South Africa the housing finance system has had little impact on the low-income segment of the population.   Specifically, â€Å"attempts to expand credit into this market through micro-loans have been characterized by initiatives that have yet to demonstrate some form of success.†   The financial sector in South Africa consists of many banks, a number of specialized finance companies and a large number of the so-called alternative lenders.   Future studies should investigate which of these alternatives is likely to have success in reaching the lower income segments of the population.   According to Moss (2004), housing finance has also not been very successful in Nigeria where the gap between income and shelter cost is very wide and has basically eliminated the low income earners from the housing market.   Similarly, Rahman (2009) states that the lack of available and accessible housing finance has been identified by the Government of Bangladesh as one of the important hurdles in improving housing conditions for middle- and lower-income households. Although several potential sources of housing finance for mid- and high-income consumers exist, most of the low-income families’ needs are still unmet. Housing Finance in Developing Markets While there are differences in how housing finance occurs across developing countries, there are some similarities and shared concerns.   The degree to which a country’s banks invest in mortgage lending is relatively low in developing countries when compared to developed countries.   For example, Rahman (2009) cites that in Bangladesh, 4% of banking sector assets are in housing.   In many countries there are state funded and/or sponsored housing finance institutions with government guarantees.   However, there may be allocation problems in that loans are allocated based on politics and not on financials and the granting process can be long and inefficient.   There are not as many types of mortgage instruments and in fact many countries are just beginning to grant fixed-rate mortgages which eliminate interest rate risk for the borrower.   The maturity of mortgage loans tends to be shorter in developing countries – 10 years is the maximum term for some mortgag es in Bangladesh.   In addition to state sponsored financial institutions and banks, home finance is offered by micro finance institutions.   In Bangladesh, one such institution offers these loans for a term of 10 years without collateral.   Although there is no collateral, the borrower must obtain title to the land and must sign a pledge to repay and obtain a group pledge to repay the loan if he or she fails to do so.   These programs tend to rely on a borrowers track record, group pressure and mutual support to control credit risk.   Moss (2004) finds similarities in housing finance in South Africa and to a lesser extent, Nigeria, Ghana and Tanzania.   In most of these countries, anecdotal evidence suggests that the supply of housing finance is much less than the demand and that the institutional structures have not provided sufficient access to housing for the poor. Housing, Financial Deepening and Poverty: One segment of housing finance is the secondary mortgage market and the creation of mortgage instruments or bonds.   While there has not been research on the development of mortgage markets and poverty specifically, the development of those markets can be viewed as part of an overall financial deepening of the capital markets in these developing countries.   Financial deepening has been studied and it may serve as a proxy for the development of secondary mortgage markets to the extent that they occur simultaneously.   At any rate, the development of a secondary mortgage market would be consistent with increasing the breadth and depth of the capital market.   Therefore, a review of the relationship between financial deepening and poverty may tell something about the potential impact of mortgage market development and poverty.   Consistent with this view, Malpezzi (1999) suggests that much of the world is shifting from a housing finance perspective, where special circuits are used to mobilize short-term household deposits for long-term mortgages, to a perspective where housing finance is integrated with broader capital markets. Buckley and Madhusudhan (1984) test a model of the relationship between housing investment and GDP, anticipated inflation, changes in inflation and the extent of capital deepening across several developing and transition countries.   They find that, holding all else constant countries with deeper financial markets invest relatively more in housing.   Singh and Huang (2011) analyze data from sub-Saharan Africa between 1992 and 2006.   They find that financial deepening (as measured in part by credit to the private sector as a percent of GDP) is associated with less poverty and income disparities in SSA countries and that this is most important in early stages of financial development.   Stronger property rights strengthen this relationship.   Finally, Beck, Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (2004) examine a broad cross country sample of 58 developing countries and find that financial development (as measured by the ratio of financial intermediation to the private section to GDP) reduces income inequality by disproportionately raising the incomes of the poor. Impact of Financial Deepening on the Base of the Pyramid and Absolute Poor Singh & Huang (2011) look at different definitions of poverty and examine the impact of financial deepening on them.   The measures of poverty include, the headcount index which measures the percentage of the population living with per capita consumption or income below the poverty line, defined as US$1 a day.   Another measure is the poverty gap which takes into account the distance of the poor from the poverty line.   A third measure is the income of the poorest quintile or average per capita income of the poorest 20 percent of the population.   Using each of these measures of poverty and a sample of SSA countries, the authors find that poverty is inversely related to financial deepening.   The authors also look at the Gini coefficient which is derived from the Lorenz curve.   Larger values of this coefficient indicated greater income inequality.   For this variable the relationship between poverty and financial deepening is insignificant.   In other words, financia l deepening reduces absolute levels of poverty but does not impact income inequality in a significant manner in this sample of SSA countries.   This suggests that various definitions should be examined to gain further insight into the relationship between housing and poverty and to capture the impact on the absolute poor. 5.   Housing Finance and Revenue and Social Consequences Government Revenue Links to Housing Wardrip, Williams and Hauge (2011) itemize revenues from housing development in the U.S.   Some lessons can be learned from this data.   Revenue sources during the construction phase include sales taxes on building materials, corporate taxes on builders’ profits, income taxes on construction workers, and fees for zoning, inspections, and the like.   These estimates presume that the building materials are purchased locally, to the extent the materials are brought in from elsewhere, revenues will of course be lower.   This is something that will impact housing construction in IDA countries.   Revenues in the model depend on local tax structures, construction costs, development fees and whether the local mix of industries is conducive to capturing construction-related activity.   For example, Hangen and Northrup (2010) analyze the effects of developing and rehabilitating 582 affordable homes in Rhode Island in 2007 and 2008 with $25 million in housing bonds.   They estimate that the subsequent income, corporate and sales taxes and fees associated with the total economic activity increased state revenues by roughly $16.7 million during the development period.   In an analysis of a proposed Pennsylvania state housing trust fund, Econsult (2009) finds that for every $1 million in proposed spending, the state stands to gain $82,000 in revenue from the construction of single family homes; these revenues would be higher if the $1 million were spent on affordable multifamily housing. In addition to immediate fiscal benefits, housing construction also provides on-going benefits to the locality.  Ã‚   On-going revenue sources include residential property taxes, property taxes from the businesses supported by the residents, and utility user fees.   A residential development has a net positive fiscal impact only if taxes exceed the cost of providing services to the residents.   The evidence regarding the net effect of affordable housing is inconclusive.   However, there is evidence to suggest that market-rate housing provides net positive fiscal impact (National Association of Home Builders, 2009). Political Stability and Housing There is a presumption that housing improves political stability.   So far, no evidence has been found to indicate that this is true although it is a stylized fact.   Provision of housing is international law.   Sachs (2011) reminds us that it’s a right granted in the U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights as follows: Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care †¦ There may be indirect support to the extent that there has been evidence to indicate that housing improves education and education is believed to improve political stability (see evidence in next section).   The relationship between political stability and housing may go in the other direction.   In other words, political instability can affect the housing market.   According to Tu and Bao (2009), instability may weaken investor’s beliefs in property rights, putting the investors in fear that part of the investment may be lost due to poor protection.   Therefore, investors may pay less for the property rights when facing political uncertainty.   Their study uses 10 years of data from Hong Kong and Singapore where there were differences in political scenarios but similar land lease structures and property cycles.   The empirical evidence supports the idea that political instability lowers property rights premiums. Education and Housing To the extent that housing improves homeowner’s borrowing capacity, housing finance could lead to more investment in human capital.   Since investment in human capital may require an individual to borrow money, and borrowing money is costly, to the extent that housing finance lowers the cost of borrowing, it should lead to larger investments in human capital.   Many authors [starting with Becker (1975) and Atkinson (1975)] studied the link between investment in human capital and wealth distribution.   An implication of these models is that income inequality will decrease as access to finance improves. Some studies have documented a link between housing and education.   To the extent that housing finance improves housing affordability for the poor, housing finance may improve education opportunities for the poor.   Jacoby (1994) finds that lack of access to credit perpetuates poverty in Peru because poor households can’t afford to provide their children with appropriate education.   Jacoby and Skoufias (1997) find that without access to finance, shocks to income cause poor families to discontinue schooling for children.   Housing provides an asset that can be used to smooth shocks to income. If housing indeed improves education opportunities for children of the poor then by extension housing will improve political stability.   Sachs (2011) in explaining why governments should provide education, quotes Adam Smith who said, â€Å"An instructed and intelligent people †¦ are more disposed to examine, and more capable of seeing through, the interested complaints of faction and seditiontherefore, the whole society is at risk when any segment of society is poorly educated.†Ã‚   6. Summary A review of the literature pertaining to housing, economic growth and poverty reveals that much more research is needed in order to determine the true economic benefits of housing and whether housing finance in particular can be an effective tool in eradicating poverty.   The paucity of evidence is due in part to limits in data and the need to utilize robust econometric techniques to test for the direction of the causality in these relationships.   In other words, more research needs to explore whether housing construction leads to economic growth or economic growth leads to increased demand for housing and by extension housing finance.   Although there is little direct documentation that housing finance improves economic standing or living standards of the poor, some inferences can be made from the related literature.   The most promising evidence is found in the financial deepening literature where it has been shown that improvements in financial markets are associated with reducing absolute levels of poverty.   To the extent that financial deepening improves with the development of mortgage markets, then housing finance may also be effective in reducing poverty.   In addition, there appears to be solid evidence that housing construction produces jobs – directly and indirectly through the supporting service industries.   Housing is also shown to improve prospects for education and thus may reduce income inequality.   Evidence indicates that there is no one size fits all relationship between housing, economic growth and poverty.   Although evidence shows that housing investment impacts economic growth, that relationship varies within countries and over time.   While not explored in depth in this review, there are some concerns regarding the impact of housing on economic development and poverty.   For example, due to considerable transactions costs, some suggest that housing may reduce job mobility.   In addition, while housing construction may create construction related jobs, there is a question as to whether that just crowds out investment in other sectors of the economy.   Housing finance while improving access to housing, may also increase opportunities for speculation and may lead to large booms and busts and housing cycles that may negatively impact the economy in the longer run. These and other concerns should be explored further to determine their significance. References Atkinson, A. B., 1974, The Economics of Inequality (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Banerjee, Abhijit and E. Duflo, 2011,   Poor Economics: A Radical Rethinking of the Way to Fight Global Poverty, (Public Affairs, New York). Becker, G. S., 1975, Human Capital, NBER and Columbia University Press, New York. Buckley, Robert, 1996, Housing Finance in Developing Countries, (McMillan, London). Buckley, R. and R. Madhusudhan, 1984, The Macroeconomics of Housing’s Role in the Economy: An International Analysis, Presented to the American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association. Bunnarith, M., 2004, Between Poverty Reduction Strategy and National Housing Policy, National University of Singapore Working Paper. Chen, J. and A. Zhu, 2008, The Relationship Between Housing Investment and Economic Growth in China: A Panel Analysis Using Quarterly Provincial Data, China National Social Science Foundation Working Paper. Dübel, Hans-Joachim, 2007, Does Housing Finance Promote Economic and Social Development in Emerging Markets?, Housing Finance Impact Study for International Finance Corporation. Econsult Corporation, 2009, Potential Economic and Fiscal Impacts of a Pennsylvania Housing Trust Fund, The Housing Alliance of Pennsylvania. Erbas, S. and F. Nothaft, 2002, The Role of Affordable Mortgages in Improving Living Standards and Stimulating Growth: A Survey of Selected MENA Countries, IMF Working Paper. Freire, Mila, M. Gautier and O. Hassler, 2006, Review of Argentina’s Housing Sector: Options for Affordable Housing Policy, World Bank Working Paper. Guitierrez, C., et. al., 2007, Does Employment Generation Really Matter for Poverty Reduction?, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 4432, World Bank, Washington, DC. Habitat for Humanity, Consequences of Poverty Housing. Hangen, Eric, and J. Northrup, 2010, Building Homes Rhode Island: An Analysis of Economic Impacts, Housing Works RI. Hongyu, Liu, Y. Park and Z. Siqi, 2002, The Interaction between Housing Investment and Economic Growth in China, International Real Estate Review, 5: 1, p. 40 – 60. Housing Assistance Council, 1998, The Effects of Housing Development on a Rural Community’s Economy. Hull, Katy, 2009, Understanding the Relationship Between Economic Growth, Employment and Poverty Reduction, OECD. Jacoby, Hanan, 1994, Borrowing Constraints and Progress through School: Evidence from Peru, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 76, 151-160. Jacoby, Hanan and E. Skoufias, 1997, Risk, Financial Markets, and Human Capital, Review of Economic Studies, Vol 64, 311-335. Karlan, Dean and J. Appel, 2011, More Than Good Intentions: How a New Economics is Helping to Solve Global Poverty, (Dutton, New York). Leung, C., 2004, Macroeconomics and Housing: A Review of the Literature, Journal of Housing Economics, 13: p. 249-267. Malpezzi, Stephen, 1999, Economic Analysis of Housing Markets in Developing and Transition Economies, Urbanization in Transforming Economies, p. 1791-1864. Malpezzi, Stephen and J. Sa-Aadu, 1996, What Have African Housing Policies Wrought?, Real Estate Economics, Vol. 24:2, p. 133-160. Moss, Vuyisani, 2004, Preview of Housing Finance Systems in Four Different African Countries: South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana and Tanzania, Centre for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa. National Association of Home Builders, 2009, The Local Impact of Home Building in a Typical Metro Area: Income, Jobs and Taxes Generated. Washington, DC. Quigley, John, 2008, Urbanization, Agglomeration and Economic Development, Commission on Growth and Development, Working Paper No. 19. Rahman, Khandaker, 2009, Development of Housing Finance and its Impact on Socio-Economic Uplift in the Emerging Economy in Bangladesh, IFC Bulletin No. 31. Sachs, Jeffrey, 2005, The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time, (The Penguin Press, New York). Singh, Raju and Y. Huang, 2011, Financial Deepening and Property Rights: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa, IMF Working Paper No. 11/196. Tipple, A. Graham, 1994, Employment from Housing: A Resource for Rapidly Growing Urban Populations, Cities 11, No. 6, p. 373. Tu, Y. and H. Bao, 2009, Property Rights and Housing Value: The Impacts of Political Instability, Real Estate Economics, 37:2, p. 235 257. United Nations, 1995, Shelter Provision. Uy, Willie, 2006, Medium-Rise Housing: The Philippine Experience, Presentation Paper for the 5th Asian Forum. Wardrip, Keith, L. Williams and S. Hague, 2011, The Role of Affordable Housing in Creating Jobs and Stimulating Local Economic Development: A Review of the Literature, Center for Housing Policy. Is Prostitution a Victimless Crime? Essay Is Prostitution a Victimless Crime? Essay Prostitution, as described by the Merriam-Websters Dictionary (1997), is the selling of sexual favors for money or the devoting of oneself or ones talent to an unworthy cause (p. 589). In another frame of reference, prostitution has been called a victimless crime. What exactly is a victimless crime? Wests Encyclopedia of American defines it as: crime where there is no apparent victim and no apparent pain or injury. This class of crime usually involves only consenting adults in activities such as prostitution, sodomy, and gambling where the acts are not public, no one is harmed, and no one complains of the activities (2008). This classic definition of these types of crime implies there is not any victim of the criminal behavior who experiences harm. From a theoretical perspective, conflict theorists may hold that victimless crimes are established as a type of social control over morality by politically powerful people or groups who find them offensive or undesirable while functional theorists may hold that social needs, not societal power, are the underlying condition of labeling victimless behaviors as criminal (Greek, C.E., 2005). Why are some consensual acts considered illegal while others are not? McWilliams (1996) asserts consensual activities prohibitions and restrictions have their basis in religion while ODonnell (2000) in addressing the price of victimless crime laws, proposes those crime laws are a form of morality control and religious persecution that uphold the opinions of the law-controlling majority with regards to race, ethnicity and political stances. The issue in victimless crimes is that society has created laws to prohibit certain types of conduct considered to be against the public interest and when supposed victims freely consent to be the victim in one of these crimes; the question is whether the state should make an exception from the law for the situation. For the purpose of this paper, prostitution and the issues of concern in the legalization of this victimless crime is explored. Upon examining prostitution as a victimless crime, it seems evident there are victims at some level but most of the harm seems to be self-inflicted. Looking at the puzzle of the involved behaviors, having sex and asking for money, each by themselves are perfectly legal. Having sex with someone, even an unknown person is legal, and asking for money is legal but, when the two behaviors are linked into one single instance, a criminal act results. The two separate legal behaviors cannot constitute an illegal behavior for if no person is harmed, or if harm occurs by informed consent of the willing parties, how can it be considered a criminal act? One arguable stance presented is that consensual acts are not without risk and when adults consent to take part in the acts, why should the resulting action be deemed criminal by legal social rules? What kinds of problems can the law solve and what kind of problems does the law create? Among the many proponents of de-criminalizing victimless crimes the concept of unconstitutionality is consistently cited (Hardaway, 2000; McWilliams, 1998; ODonnell, 2000; National Platform of the Libertarian Party, 2002). A prominent vocal critic of criminalizing these termed victimless crimes, such as prostitution, is Robert Hardaway. Hardaway is a professor of Law at the University of Denvers School of Law who has written and co-written numerous texts and articles on legal and community interest matters. Hardaways 2003 book, No Price Too High: Victimless Crimes and the Ninth Amendment, as cited by Cox in a 2004 review, presents a powerful and strongly-argued perspective which argues the criminalization of victimless crimes violate the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution (2004). Cox notes the criminalization of these crimes as well as amount of money it takes to enforce the laws are unsound policies according to Hardaway. Although, in the case of drugs, crime against property and person are related to drug use, Hardaway, per Cox (2004), attributes the harm of drug use to the laws rather than the use of drugs themselves. According to Cox, Hardaway uses the example of Prohibition to explain the supply and demand concept of the argument stating: crime and violence do not emanate from some physiological effect of the drug, but the drug laws themselves and with the decriminalization of drugs, neighborhood drug dealers would be put out of business effectively breaking the business-end of organized crime (105). Hardaway further posits, according to Cox, legalizing personal vices is justified by a considered weighing of the costs and consequences of criminalization (30), (2004). ProCon.org has a website which addresses the issue of whether or not prostitution should be legalized and many statements were provided on this website of both the pro and con sides of the issue: No persons human or civil rights should be violated on the basis of their trade, occupation, work, calling, or profession [Prostitution Education Network, 1996]; prostitution violates the right to physical and moral integrityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦violates the prohibition of torture and of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.. [Hoffman, C., 1997]; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦prostitution laws areà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a violation of the right of individual privacy because they impose penal sanctions for the private sexual conduct of consenting adultsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [American Civil Liberties Union, 2007]; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦few activities are as brutal and damaging to people as prostitutionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [U.S. Department of State, 2004] (ProCon, 2009). Of all opposition members, the most prominent is Melissa Farley, a research and clinical psychologist at the San Francisco non-profit organization, Prostitution Research and Education. Farley has written numerous peer-reviewed articles on the subject (Farley, M., 2006). Farleys numerous research articles provide a well-rounded look at the subject matter of prostitution, the sex industry, exploitation of women, as well as the myriad of troubling issues arising from when men purchase women in prostitution. In the 2006 article, Prostitution, Trafficking, and Cultural Amnesia: What We Must Not Know in Order to Keep the Business of Sexual Exploitation Running Smoothly, Farley posits prostitution is sexual violence that results in massive economic profit for some of its perpetrators and is a much like slavery in that it is a lucrative form of oppression (p. 102). Farley goes further to remark on prostitutions legal status (legal, illegal, zoned, or decriminalized) or the location of the ac tivity (strip club, massage parlor, street, and escort/home/hotel) the danger to women is still tremendous (p. 103). Farleys discussion on the peer-reviewed literature which documents the violence so prevalent in prostitution and states: Violence is commonplace in prostitution whether it is legal or illegal (p. 106). Citing a Canadian commission on prostitution and pornography which reported the death rate of women in prostitution as forty times higher than that of the general population and a 2001 Vancouver prostitution research study by Cler-Cunningham and Christensen which reported a thirty-six percent incident of attempted murder, Farley contends prostitution can be lethal (p. 107). Farleys detailed look at legalized and illegal prostitution can impact the perception of the sex industry as a whole. However, within the United States Constitutions first ten amendments, also known as the Bill of Rights, are provisions which may present a strong argument for abolishing criminalizing prostitution and other victimless crimes. The First, Fourth, Fifth, and Ninth Amendments are of particular interest in this dialogue of supporting the decriminalization of prostitution. Although victimless crimes such as prostitution are not specifically addressed in the Constitution there seems to be an arguable position that victimless crime laws violate First Amendment restrictions against laws respecting an establishment of religion especially since religious and moral values seem to provide the foundation for many of the laws. The Fourth Amendments provisions on search and seizure seems to be violated by such devices as warrantless search and seizures which are often utilized to obtain evidence for prosecutorial purposes. The privacy of innocents can be threatened as enforcement of the law requires police and investigators to engage in extensive monitoring, wiretapping, and surveillance of suspects and the public. Some people believe that these warrantless search and seizures and victimless crime laws are a means of political power over selected portions of the population which are unequally enforced against the poor and minorities thereby violating the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment (Kruttscnitt, 1984; McWilliams, 1998; Nussbaum, OConnell, 2000; 1999; Schur, 1971, 1980, 1983). The Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution has direct bearing on such modern day constitutional issues such as abortion, gay rights, and the right to die. Farber (2007) considers the Ninth Amendment the key to understanding the liberties Americans were to enjoy under the Constitution as envisioned by the Founding Fathers describes the purpose of the Ninth Amendment and the Founders intent: to protect the rights the Founders assumed but failed to enumerate or specify in the Bill of Rights. Like the rest of the original Bill of Rights, per Farber, the Ninth Amendment only limits federal power rather than state government powers. The Fourteenth Amendment came along later and addressed the state government and within that Amendment the Privileges or Immunities Clause is paired with the Ninth Amendment (Lash, 2004; Farber, 2007). America is in first place in the world for the number of incarcerated individuals as highlighted by a Pew Center report that found 1 in every 100 American adults are behind bars with its prison population having tripled in the last 20 years. Spending on prisons has more than quadrupled and the American taxpayers are slowly crushed by this wasteful spending. At an average cost of over $19,000 per prisoner, taxpayers are facing a bill of over $44 billion per year to keep people locked away (Pew, 2004). Coinciding with this rising prison population is the increase in the number of private prisons which increased from five in 1995 to 100 in 2005. Herivel and Wright ( ) in their book Prison Profiteers-Who Makes Money From Mass Incarceration reports private prison industry has seen increased profits and lobbied extensively for more frequent and longer prison sentences and traces the flow of monies designated for the public good and ends up in the pockets of enterprises dedicated to keeping prison cells filled (From their book jacket). History has shown that criminalizing victimless crimes will drive the practice underground where violence, extortion, and coercion are most likely to thrive. This was particularly noticed when the 18th Amendment and later the Volstead Act, 1919, which made it illegal to manufacture or sell beer, wine, or other intoxicating malt or vinous liquors it was not illegal to possess it for personal use. The prohibition, originally intended to reduce beer consumption in particular, actually a failure and ended up increasing hard liquor consumption and created a new business, bootlegging, defined as the unlawful manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages without registration or payment of taxes which became widespread and a staple of organized crime (Prohibition). Almost every individual has the ability and moral capacity to judge what is helpful or harmful to them and it does not make sense for other people to dictate what choices should be made. When individuals commit acts harmful to themselves, the action should be termed as immoral, not illegal. The criminalization for the act of prostitution should not be determined by social effects of an individuals actions or by the moral or religious views of society. Every person needs freedom to make choices and accept the consequences for without these consequences, growth and experiential development will be hindered. If an adult man-or an adult woman, wants to engage in sexual relations with another adult man or woman who charges a fee for his or her services, they should be able to do so without the fear of being guilty of a crime. It does not mean that prostitution should not be subjected to certain legal requirements such as health laws. Removing prostitution from criminal statutes and providing a designation as a business entity subjected to business requirements, prostitution can be taxed, sex workers can obtain health and safety rights other employees have, and problems of abuse and graft associated with police jurisdiction of such a business can be dealt with more effectively with better protection from violence and abuse for those individuals who work within the industry. In a 2001 article written for the New Zealand Herald, Sue Bradford, MA, Member of New Zealands Parliament says it best: prostitution has been a career option for some people since history began. Nothing any law has done has changed or will change thatà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I believe we would all be better off to accept the job choice that some adults make as valid and worthy of care and compassion for all our sakes (2001). Work Cited Bradford, S. (2001). Dialogue: Sex workers deserve protection of the law. New Zealand Herald. July 30, 2001. 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